4033 
\ S4 
>y 1 



EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES IN PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY 



Editor: 
LIGHTNER WITHER 

UNivEnsrry of Pennsylvania 



VI 

RETARDATION IN THE READING PUBLIC SCHOOLS 



AARON MOYER SNYDER, Ph.D. 



A THESIS 

S0BMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GBADtfATE SCHOOL 

OP THE XJNIVERSITT OF PENNSYLVANIA IN PARTIAL 

FULFILMENT OP THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE 

DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 



PHILADELPHIA 

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC PRESS 

1911 



|fnn*frapH 



Psychological 
Monographs 



A SERIES OF EXPERIMENTAL 

STUDIES IN PSYCHOLOGY 

AND PEDAGOGY 



EDITED BY 

LIGHTNEF^ WITMER 
University of Pennsylvania 



1. Spelling ift the Elementary School. An Experimental and Statistical In- 

vestigation, 1902. 98 pp. 16 figures in the text and an appendix of 
26 tables. Price: cloth, $1.25; paper, $1.00. 

By Oliver P. Cornman, Ph, D., District Superintendent of Schools, 
Philadelphia. 

"Dr. Cornman has made aa extensive investigation of the abili<af of school children 
in Philadelphia schools in the subject of spelling-, and studied his results with such 
care that his work deserves special attention. " Professor W. H. Burhham. The 
Pedagogical Seminary. Vol. ylll. No. 4, Dec, 1906, p. 491. 

2. The Sensation of Pain and the Theory of the Specific Sense Energies. 

1902. viii + 87 pp., with one table and two figures in the text. Price: 
paper, $1.00. 

By Anna J. McKeag, Ph. D., Professor of Pedagogy, Wellesley 
College. 

As a result of an experimental ihvestigatioh of the reaction of a number of subjects 
to painful stimuU, the author first presents an analysis of the pain judgment, which 
is presented either as ageneral or unforced judgment, or as a judgment in which the 
subject is required to give expression to the perceived qualitative distinctness and 
discreteness of the sensation. The relation of pain and touch to various stirriuli is 
given consideration: In an important chapter a resume of the history of the theory 
of the specific sense energiesis given, with special reference to the sensation of pain, 
and an examination is made of the physiological basis of pain in the periphery 
and nerve centres. 

3. The Application of Statistical Methods to the Problem of Psychophvsics, 

1908. 221 pp., including 94 tables. Price: paper, $2.50. 

By F« M. Urban, Ph. D., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. 

4. Two Experinaental Studies of the! Insane. I. The Train of Thought. 

II. Some Physiologlical Conditions accompanying States of Depression, 
84 pp., 3 inserted tables. Price: paper, $1.00.' 

By Clara Harrison Town, Ph. D., Resident Psychologist at Friends' 
Asylum for the, Insane, Frankford,, Philadelphia, Pa. 

5. A Clinical Study of One Thousand Retarded Children in Camden, N.J, 

By J. D. Heilman, Ph. D., Professor of Psychology, State Normal 
School, Greeley, Coloi'ado, 106 pp., including 23 tables. Price: paper. 
$1.00. 

G. Extent and Causes of Retardation in the Reading (Pa.) Public Schools iji 
December, 1910. A Statistical Study. 

By Aaron MoYibR Snyder, Ph^D. 72 pp., including 44 tables, and 
14 figures in the text. Price: paper, $1.00. 

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CLINIC PRESS 
Woodland Ave. & 36th St. Philadelphia, Pa. 



(% 



'^ <J^ 



EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES IN PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY 



Editor: 
LIGHTNER WITHER 

Univehsitt op Pennsylvania 



VI. EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION IN 

THE READING (PA.) PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN 

DECEMBER, 1910. A STATISTICAL 

STUDY. 



EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION IN THE READING (PA.) 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN DECEMBER, 1910. 

A STATISTICAL STUDY 



BY 



AARON MOYER SNYDER, Ph.D. 



PHILADELPHIA 

THE PSYCHOLOGICAX, CLINIC PRESS 

1911 






Gift 
The UniT'ersity 

AU6 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Inteoduction" % 9 

II. Figures of Enrolment. School Census 12 

III. Eetardation. Average Time Spent in Grade. Pro- 

motions 26 

IV. Age oe Entrance '. 45 

V. Elimination 53 

VI. Attendance 58 

VII. Summary 68 



LIST OF TABLES. 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. Grade distribution according to blanks returned from both public 

and parochial schools 11 

II. Enrolment of males and females in each grade of the public schools 

in October, 1907 14 

III. Changes in enrolment from September to June during 1907-1908 in 

the first four grades 15 

IV. Changes in enrolment (per cent) from September, 1907, to June, 

1908, in grades five, six, seven, and eight 16 

v. Enrolment in the elementary grades in October for the years 1903 

to 1908 19 

VI. School census taken from blanks 23 

VII. Distribution according to age 24 

VIII. Pupils above normal age in each grade 28 

IX. Pupils of normal age in each grade 28 

X. Pupils below normal age In each grade 28 

XI. Pupils below normal age (on basis of age) % . . . . 31 

XII. Pupils of normal age (on basis of age) 32 

XIII. Pupils above normal age (on basis of age) 32 

XIV. Average time spent in each of the eight elementary grades 33 

XV. Per cents of those who gained time, made normal progress, and lost 

time in each grade, in half years 35 

XVI. The school progress of the males in each grade by terms 39 

XVII. The school progress of the females in each grade by terms 39 

XVIII. The school progress of males and females in each grade by terms. . 39 

XIX. Summary of school progress of 8457 pupils 40 

XX. The school progress of 8457 pupils expressed financially 41 

XXI. Results obtained by three different methods for computing per- 

centages of promotion 43 

XXII. Admission to the first grade 44 

XXIII. Average ages of pupils who spent a half year, a year and a half, 

and two years and over in the same grade 46 

XXIV. Average ages of pupils in the elementary grades in October, 1908.. 47 

XXV. Comparison of normal progress, and one and two year losses on the 

basis of age entrance 48 

XXVI. Comparison of normal progress, and one and two year losses in 

groups 49 

XXVII. Entrances per thousand other than through promotion to grades 

^ two to eight 49 

XXVIII. Per cent of the number in each grade who were admitted after the 

first grade 50 

XXIX. Average ages of those who attended only the Reading public schools, 

and of those who formerly completed one or more years in 
another school 51 

XXX. Loss sustained by pupils in grades five, six, seven, and eight 

through change of residence 51 

XXXI. Per cent of decrease throughout the eight elementary grades, based 

upon the enrolment in the first grade 53 

XXXII. Average decrease in the October enrolment in 1907 and 1908 .... 54 

(7) 



CHAPTEB 

XXXIII. 
XXXIV. 
XXXV. 
XXXVI. 

XXXVII. 

XXXVIII. 

XXXIX. 

XL. 

XLI. 

XLII. 
XLIII. 

XLIV. 



List of Tables and Diagrams. 

PAGE 

Causes and percentages of withdrawals 

Percentages of withdrawals in each grade 55 

Grade distribution of withdrawals on the basis of cause of leaving. 56 
Classification by grades of 4889 pupils promoted and 1820 not 

promoted 

Attendance of promoted and non-promoted pupils on the basis of a 

thousand, and percentages in groups of one-fourth 59 

Percentages of attendance on the basis of fourths of the number of 

days 60 

Percentages of attendance of the promoted pupils in groups of thirty 

days 62 

Percentages of attendance of non-promoted pupils in groups of 

thirty days • ^3 

Percentages of attendance of the promoted and non-promoted pupils 

on the basis of 70 per cent of the number of days 64 

Effect of non-attendance as a cause of non-promotion 65 

Total number of aays lost per thousand by pupils of the promoted 

group in the first seven grades 66 

Total number of days lost per thousand by the non-promoted group. 66 



9. 
10. 

11. 
12. 
13. 

14. 



LIST OF DIAGRAMS. 

PAGE 

The approximate number of males and females in each grade 15 

Relative value of October, February and June enrolments, based on devia- 
tion from September enrolment 17 

Distribution of 10,157 pupils according to grade 24 

Distribution of 10,157 pupils according to age 25 

Per cent of male and female retarded in each grade 29 

Per cent of male and female of normal age in each grade 29 

Per cent of male and female below normal age in each grade 29 

Per cent of pupils of normal age, above normal, and below normal in each 

grade 30 

Relative number of pupils of normal age, above normal, and below normal. 31 
Number of terms gained and lost by 8457 boys and girls in the elementary 

grades 41 

Relative gain and loss of 8457 pupils in the elementary grades 42 

Relation of retardation and elimination on basis of number in each grade . . 57 
Relation of retardation and elimination in elementary grades on basis of 

age 57 

Attendance of 1856 pupils not promoted, and 4889 pupils promoted 61 



EXTENT AND CAUSES OF EETAKDATION 11^ THE 
EEADIE"G (PA.) PUBLIC SCHOOLS m DECEM- 
BER, 1910. A STATISTICAL STUDY. 



I. 

Intkoduction. 



During the last six years investigations have been conducted 
under the auspices of the Psychological Department of the Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania, to find out the various causes for the 
retardation of a large per cent of the boys and girls enrolled in 
the public schools. Although these and other investigations have 
done much to throw light upon the shortcomings and defects of 
the present elementary school system, much remains to be done. 
It was, therefore, with a view toward obtaining further knowledge 
in regard to the amount of retardation in each of the eight ele- 
mentary grades and of finding some of the fundamental causes 
contributing thereto, that the present investigation was 
undertaken. 

The original plan was to study the school history of the 
first year classes enrolled in the Reading high schools in Sep- 
tember, 1908, tracing the children back for at least eight years to 
the time when normally they should have entered the first grade, 
and including all who had ever belonged to these classes. A 
careful examination of the available data, however, soon dis- 
closed the fact that previous to 1905 the records were imperfect, 
and even as far as they went were unreliable and taken under 
abnormal conditions. The explanation for this is that in 1902 
the old regime of gradation which had been in use for at least 
seventeen years was completely changed and the commonly 
accepted twelve-year system put into operation. It is obvious 
that such a change produces abnormal conditions throughout 
the grades and that it will take at least three or four years 
before a new system can be applied effectively under anything 
like normal conditions. 

The original plan, therefore, had to be abandoned. In its 
place was adopted a study of the school history of the pupils 

(9) 



10 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 

enrolled in the eight elementary grades in October, 1908, for 
the three years 1906-1909. This could not have been done 
without the liberal assistance given by the superintendent, super- 
visors, and teachers. 

The sources of the data collected fall under three heads: 
(1) the school records; (2) the personal knowledge of the 
teachers, and (3) information furnished by the home through 
the child. Among the former must be mentioned the record 
card given to the child upon entering school. The data recorded 
on these since 1905 are very reliable, the form being shown in 
the following duplicate : 



Public Schools, Eeading, Pa. 

Eecord of Born 

Admitted to Building Grade , 

Date of admission Date of vaccination 

* Indicates transfer. 



Date of Pro. 
or Trans. 


To 
grade 


Divi- 
sion 


Build- 
ing 


Date of Pro. 
or Trans. 


To 
grade 


Divi- 
sion 


Build- 
ing 



































































































































































Owing to differences in recording the division and to lack 
of a clear distinction between division A and B in many of the 
grades, the data recorded under the division column had to be 
discarded. The date of vaccination was also omitted, although 
in a few cases a child was kept out of school on account of not 
being vaccinated. 

On the blanks returned the names of 6025 boys and 5Y36 
girls were recorded as regularly enrolled pupils for the first 
three months. Of these 5335 boys and 5130 girls, a total of 
10,465 belonged to the public schools, and 690 boys and 606 girls 
to the parochial schools. Classified according to grade they are 
as follows: 



INTRODUCTION. 11 

Table I. — Grade Distribution according to Blanks 
Returned from Both Public and Parochial Schools. 







Public Schools 






Parochial Schools 


des 


Boys 


Girls 


Total 


Boys 


Girls 


Total 


1 


1,011 


952 


1,963 


163 


114 


277 


2 


811 


776 


1,587 


148 


141 


289 


3 


780 


732 


1,512 


148 


125 


273 


4 


779 


833 


1,612 


107 


114 


221 


5 


847 


676 


1,523 


67 


62 


129 


6 


559 


520 


1,079 


42 


35 


77 


7 


353 


394 


747 


13 


13 


26 


8 


195 


247 


442 


2 


2 


4 



Totals 5,335 5,130 10,465 690 606 1,296 

In the various computations a large number of these blanks 
had to be rejected for want of sufficient information, especially 
those of the parochial schools, from which not enough aetailed 
information was received to warrant deductions. In addition 
to these all records of apparent or real abnormalities due to uncon- 
trollable circumstances were also rejected in all computations 
which involved the merits of the educational system. 



II. 

FiGUBES OF Enrolment. 

Since the appearance of ''Elimination of Pupils from Sciiool" 
by Prof. Thorndike, much has been said and written concerning 
the relative value of figures of enrolment throughout the grades. 
No doubt in a number of cases the system of instruction has 
been unjustly criticised by not taking into consideration the kind 
of enrolment dealt with and neglecting to consider the uncon- 
trollable factors which are the direct and indirect causes for a 
large per cent of retardation and apparent elimination found in 
the grades. School systems have been compared and placed in 
the scale of efficiency through computations based upon as many 
as five different sets of enrolment figures, each giving different 
results when applied to the same system. Such discrepancies 
have been notably pointed out by Ealkner in an article pub- 
lished in The Psychological Clinic, May 15, 1908 ; and in the 
same journal for October 15, 1908, Ayres has pointed out the 
uncontrollable factors which must be considered in the discus- 
sion of retardation and elimination of pupils. 

Another potent factor causing injustice and discrepancies in 
the comparison of school systems is the use of data recorded in 
different years. Many cities have made great advance during 
the last five years, and to base their efficiency upon the records 
of five years ago is at best a misrepresentation. Even in two years 
the enrolment in the same grade may vary considerably. Eor 
instance, the enrolment in the third grade in October, 1906, was 
8.2 per cent more than in the second grade for the same year and 
in October, 1908, 3.9 per cent less, a total fluctuation of 12.1 
per cent. 

The enrolments found in the various school reports comprise 
four distinct classes of figures, viz., total enrolment, average 
enrolment, average enrolment based on average attendance, and 
monthly enrolment. Another method employed is that of taking 
the enrolment on a certain day, but as this is essentially the same 
as the enrolment for the month in which it was taken, it need 
not be considered separately. 

The total enrolment includes all pupils who belonged to 
school during the year regardless of the number of days they 
attended. 

(12) 



FIGURES OF ENROLMENT. 13 

The average enrolment is obtained by dividing tbe sum of the 
monthly enrolments by the number of months in the school year. 

The enrolment based on the average attendance is computed 
in essentially the same way as the average enrolment, but on the 
basis of the average attendance in each month. It is obviously 
always the lowest enrolment. 

The monthly enrolment includes all those pupils which 
belonged to school during each particular month. Since the num- 
ber admitted, the number eliminated, and the number promoted 
vary considerably for the different months, the monthly enrol- 
ments also vary greatly. 

The question now is, which data of enrolment are the most 
reliable and of most value ? With such a diverse set of data as 
these different enrolments represent, it is evident that erroneous 
deductions and unjust criticisms are inevitable, unless the hind 
of data of enrolment used is duly considered. Especially is this 
true when the efficiency of the school system is involved. ^ 

For instance, the total enrolment in the Reading public 
schools during 1907-1908 was 12,785, the average enrolment 
11,686, the average attendance 10,278, and the monthly enrolment 
varied from 11,954 in October to 11,143 in June. Stated in terms 
of differences, the total enrolmeiat was 831 higher than the 
monthly enrolment for October, the enrolment for October 268 
higher than the average enrolment, the average enrolment 543 
higher than the enrolment for June, and the June enrolment 865 
higher than the enrolment based on the average attendance, a 
total difference between the highest and lowest enrolment of 2507. 

For computations of retardation and elimination the total 
enrolment tends undoubtedly to exaggerate the former and mini- 
mize the latter. It includes in the first place all the transient 
class peculiar to our large cities, for whom the ^chools cannot be 
held responsible. In the second place the total enrolments are 
likely to contain duplicates due to moving, promotions, and trans- 
fers, of which there were in Heading 1230 in 1907-1908. 

In dealing with the average enrolment we no doubt come 
nearer the normal condition of the schools, the enrolment being 
about the same as for the month of March. In computations 
comparing one school system with another, based upon figures of 
enrolment, the average enrolment is the most just, since it mini- 
mizes abnormal local fluctuations in school conditions. For local 
purposes, however, this becomes an objection, since it obscures 
essential knowledge concerning abnormalities with which the school 
authorities should be conversant. 



14 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 

The average enrolment based upon the average attendance 
is valuable in that when compared with the average enrolment it 
reveals in some measure the part that non-attendance plays as a 
factor in retardation, the extent of which is pointed out in The 
Psychological Clinic, Vol. Ill, ISTo. 1, by Ayres, and in Vol. Ill, 
No. 4, by Mr. Ralph L. Johnson, Supervising Principal, Upper 
Darby, Pa. But for computations relative to grade distribution, 
elimination, etc., the enrolment based on the average attendance 
should not be used, since lack of attendance in some elementary 
schools is more than twice as high in the first three grades as in 
the upper five. This considerably minimizes the enrolment in 
the lower grades as compared vdth the upper grades. 

Unquestionably the monthly enrolments are of the greatest 
value. Because of their diversities, they must be considered at 
some length. It is obvious that with a difference of over eight 
hundred between the highest and lowest monthly enrolment in a 
school population of approximately twelve thousand eight hun- 
dred, the computations based upon the October enrolment, let us 
say, will vary decidedly from those derived from the enrolment 
for June. 



Table II. — Enrolment of Males and Females in Each Grade 
OF the Public Schools in October, 1907. 



•ade 


Male 


Female 


Total 


Grade 


Male 


Female 


Total 


1 


994 


969 


1,963 


7 


338 


378 


716 


2 


871 


795 


1,666 


8 


241 


254 


495 


3 


872 


862 


1,734 


9 


214 


237 


451 


4 


916 


824 


1,740 


10 


131 


149 


280 


5 


807 


691 


1,498 


11 


62 


79 


141 


6 


529 


569 


1,098 


12 


45 


85 


130 



Total 6,020 5,892 11,912 

A study of the monthly enrolments for ten years showed the 
highest enrolment to be, on the average, for the month of October 
although differing but little from that of ISTovember. In October 
1907, the enrolment was .2 per cent higher than in September 
but from then on until June there was a gradual total decrease 
of 10 per cent in the elementary grades. As shown in table II 
there is also a decided difference between the number of males 



FIGURES OF ENROLMENT. 



15 



1000 



800 



600 



400 



200 




Diagram 1. The approximate number of males and females 
in each grade. 



cal relations are shown in diagram 1. 



and females en- 
rolled in grades 
two, four, and five, 
and in each of the 
first five grades the 
number of males 
exceeds the num- 
ber of females, a 
total difference of 
319. But in all 
grades above the 
fifth the number 
of females exceeds 
the number of 
males by a total 
of 191. Their ap- 
proximat^numeri- 



Table III. — Changes in Enrolment erom September to June 

During- 1907-1908 in the First Four Grades. (The 

Minus Sign Represents a Decrease.) 



Sept. to Oct . . . 


4.4 


per cent 


Sept. 


to March. 


3.3 percent 


Sept. to ]^ov . . . 


4.7 


a 


Sept. 


to April . . - 


- 2.1 " 


Sept. to Dec. . . 


4.5 


a 


Sept. 


to May.. .- 


- 4.6 " 


Sept. to Jan . . . 


6.8 


a 


Sept. 


to June. .- 


- 8.9 " 


Sept. to Feb . . . 


10.7 


u 









Computing the percentages of change in monthly enrolment 
in each grade from September to June, 1907-1908, shows that the 
enrolment in the first four grades increases about 4 per cent in 
October, then remains constant until January, when there is 
another increase of about 2 per cent, followed by an increase 
of 4 per cent in February. From then on to the end of the year 
the enrolment decreases uninterruptedly 19.6 per cent. The Feb- 
ruary enrolment is by far the largest in these four grades. But 
taking the October enrolment, which was 4.4 per cent greater 
than in September, and which represents more nearly the normal 
condition in the first four grades, we have a total decrease of 13.3 
per cent from October to June. 



16 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF BETABDATION. 

Table IV. — Changes m Enrolment (Per Cent) from Sep- 
tember 1907, TO June 1908, in Grades 
Five, Sis, Seven and Eight. 

Fi\e Six Seven Eight 



Sept. to Oct . . . 


—1.1 


— .6 


— .8 


— .2 


Sept. to ITov . . . 


—1.1 


— 2.1 


— 2.2 


— 2.3 


Sept. to Dec. . . 


—1.2 


— 3.7 


— 4.8 


— 3.3 


Sept. to Jan. . . 


1.9 


— 6.0 


— 6.1 


— 7.1 


Sept. to Feb . . . 


.9 


— 7.4 


— 7.7 


— 7.1 


Sept. to Mar. . . 


— ■.6 


—11.5 


—10.8 


— 7.7 


Sept. to Apr. . . 


—3.9 


—14.2 


—16.2 


—14.0 


Sept. to May. .. 


—5.7 


—16.6 


—18.6 


—17.3 


Sept. to June. . 


—7.8 


—19.7 


—22.9 


—19.3 



Since midyear jDromotions are made only in the first five 
grades, the last grade to show their effect is the fifth. The enrol- 
ment increased approximately 2 per cent in January, but by June 
it had decreased to 7.8 per cent less than the September enrolment. 

In grades six, seven, and eight there is an uninterrupted, 
total average decrease of 20.6 per cent from September to June. 
But the exodus of boys and girls in these grades is by far the 
largest in December and March. In the eighth grade from a 
total elimination of 19.3 per cent from- September to June, 
approximately one-half left during the months of December and 
March. In the seventh grade, out of a total elimination of 22.9 
per cent, one-third left during IN'ovember and March ; in the sixth 
grade, of the 19.7 per cent eliminated, one-fourth left during 
December and February; and in the fifth grade one-third of the 
eliminated left in March. 

In order to give an approximate idea of the relative value of 
the different monthly enrolments, the enrolments for October, 
February, and June are compared schematically in diagram 2, 
based upon the deviations from the September enrolment. The 
zero line represents the enrolment in September, the enrolments 
for October, February, and June being represented respectively by 
the solid, broken, and dotted lines. The enrolments for these 
months were selected, because they represent the highest and lowest 
enrolments, and show the influence of midyear promotions. 

It is at once apparent that with two exceptions the June 
enrolment in each of the eight elementarv grades was consider- 



FIGURES OF ENROLMENT. 



17 



ably less than iu September and October. As stated above, it 
was 543 less than the October enrolment. The curves show that 
the enrolment in the first four grades changes but little during 
the year as compared with the decided decrease in the upper 
grades. Since elimination is greatest among the retarded, it is 
thus evident that the June enrolment minimizes retardation and 
exaggerates elimination in grades six to eight, just the reverse 
of the computations based upon the total enrolment. 



+ 4 

S 2 

2 

4 

6 

8 

10 

12 

14 

1 16 

a 18 



S3 20 



22 



^^^ 



• 'T 



12345678 
Diagram 2. Relative value of October, February and June enrolments, based on 
deviation from September enrolment, represented respectively by the solid, 
broken, and dotted lines. 

In February the enrolment in grades two, four, and five 
increased considerably, especially in grade four which had an 
increase of 119. This means a temporarily abnormal condition 
for these grades, but which by the end of the year may be at 
least partially overcome. On account of this added congestion 
in the lower grades, therefore, it is also not fair to take the Feb- 
ruary enrolment for comparison in a system of this kind, since 
it exaggerates the retardation in these grades. For grades six 
to eight, however, the February enrolment represents about the 
average condition and is a truer index of the average amount of 
retardation than the enrolment for October or ^N'ovember. 



18 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 

Everything considered as far as this investigation goes, the 
October or JSTovember enrolments are the fairest and most valuable. 
In the first place they can be obtained early in the year and there- 
fore are of immediate use. Secondly, these enrolments represent 
the time of the year when the schools are more generally normal 
and less influenced by temporary local fluctuations. Thirdly, 
next to the total enrolment they represent the highest enrolment 
and at most the number of duplications is very small. 

In Vol. II, ]SIo. 5, of The Psychological Clinic, Ayres in an 
article on "Some Factors affecting Grade Distribution," points 
out that the annual increase in the population is a factor in modi- 
fying grade distribution. He says: "If children enter at the age 
of seven they will be at least fourteen upon reaching the eighth 
grade, and we shall not be far out of the way if we state that 
under perfect school conditions of progress and retention of 
pupils we could in no case expect to find more than 87 per cent 
as many children in the eighth grade as in the first. This is a 
constant and very considerable factor in bringing about disparity 
in the number of the children in the several grades, and it is 
one which has been entirely overlooked in much of the current 
discussion of the problem." He finds that for every one thousand 
children in the first grade we can expect only SYl in the eighth 
grade under perfectly normal conditions, considering only the 
death rate and the increase in population as the factors causing 
this disparity. The effect of the increase in population alone upon 
the successive grades is given as 11, 28, 50, 64, YY, 88, and 102 
per thousand, a total difference of 420 over the supposititious 
eight thousand that would be in the eight elementary grades if 
there were no elimination. 

Probably this is a fair allowance under general conditions; 
but as Ayres says: "The age distribution of the population is 
not uniform throughout the country. In some localities in fact 
very considerable variations are found." The city of Reading 
apparently seems to be one of these exceptions. According to 
Ayres' computations, for every 1000 children in the first grade 
one year there should be 1011 the following year under the same 
conditions, 1028 the next year, 1050 the fourth, and in six years 
there should have been an increase of 77 or 7.Y per cent. Like- 
wise the other grades should have increased proportionally. 

Computing the percentages of change in each grade for the 
month of October from 1903 to 1908 reveals directly opposite 
results. During these six years the enrolment in the first grade 



Public Schools 


Parochial Schools 


Total 


11,101 


926 


12,027 


10,999 


1,230 


12,228 


11,267 


1,244 


12,511 


10,995 


1,398 


12,393 


10,910 


1,510 


12,420 


10,687 


1,454 


12,141 



FIGUBES OF ENROLMENT. 19 

decreased 6.1 per cent, and in the second grade 4.9 per cent. 
Grades three and four increased respectively .8 per cent and 8.6 
per cent, bnt the number in grades five and six again decreased 7 
per cent and 23.7 per cent. Grades seven and eight, and the high 
school show the encouraging although abnormal increase of 3.5, 
11.0, and 41.2 per cent. 

Table V. — E^fKOLMENT in the Elementary Grades in Octo- 
ber FOR THE Years 1903 to 1908. 



1903, 

1904, 

1905, 

1906 

1907, 

1908 



The total enrolment for October in the elementary public 
schools, as shown in the above table, decreased 102 in 1904 and 
in 1905 increased 268. But during the last three years it again 
decreased 272, 85, and 223 respectively. 

During these same years the enrolment in the parochial 
schools increased with but one exception, and in 1904 and 1906 
rather decidedly, due to the opening of two additional schools. 
But in October, 1908, the enrolment decreased 56, as in the pub- 
lic schools. 

Comparing the decided increase of 314 in the enrolment in 
the parochial schools in October, 1904, with the simultaneous' 
decrease of only 102 in the public schools, it seems as though a 
considerable number of the 289 pupils enrolled at the opening 
of the Polish parochial school at this time were drawn from a 
source that little affected the enrolment in the public schools. It 
no doubt was a wise step and brought many into the school room 
who otherwise would have remained outside.^ On the contrary 
the opening of St. Joseph's parochial school in 1906 seems to 
have drawn its 167 pupils largely from those previously registered 
in the public schools, since in October of this same year there was 
the decided decrease of 272 in the latter. 

To justify Ayres' deductions and to explain this abnormally 
large decrease in the elementary grades of the public schools dur- 
ing these years, it becomes necessary to find out, if possible, the 
cause for this diminution in the enrolment. Our first thought 



20 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 

would direct us to a possible change in the enrolment in the 
parochial schools. But even this does not account for the loss. 
As shown in table V*, the enrolment including both public and 
private schools increased 484 from 1903 to 1905, an average 
increase of 242. But from 1905 to 1908 the enrolment decreased 
370, an average decrease of 123 for three years. 

Further analysis of the percentages of change in the enrol- 
ment in each grade during 1903 to 1908 throws more light on 
this diminution. It reveals decided fluctuations not only in the 
enrolment in the same grade for the different years, but also 
between the numbers of boys and girls. 

The average change in the enrolment in the first grade during 
these years shows that the number of boys decreased 4.6 per cent 
and the number of girls 7.5 per cent, an average decrease of 6.1 
per cent. In the second grade there was an average decrease of 
3.7 per cent in the number of boys and 6.2 per cent in the number 
of girls. 

The average amount of change from 1903 to 1§08 in grades 
three and four shows an increase of .8 per cent in the former and 
8.6 per cent in the latter, and a marked difference between male 
and female. The number of boys in the fourth grade increased 
only .1 per cent, while the number of girls increased 17.2 per 
cent. 

This increase took place in the years 1903 to 1906, and some 
of it is undoubtedly due to the regrading of the schools and a 
change in the course of study. But judging from the enrolments 
in grades one and two for October, 1903 and 1904, it looks as 
^though the course of study or method of teaching in the first two 
grades were better adapted for the progress of the girl than the 
boy. Furthermore, the computation of the length of time spent 
in the respective grades during 1906 to 1908 partly verifies this 
deduction. Only 1.7 per cent of the boys as against 2.6 per cent 
of the girls completed the first grade in half a year; 45.2 per cent 
of the boys and 50.6 per cent of the girls completed it in one 
year; while 34 per cent of the boys and only 28.4 per cent of the 
girls were in the first grade two years and longer. 

In grades five and six there were such decided fiuctuations 
that definite deductions are unwarranted. !N"evertheless two things 
are apparent, first the number of girls has considerably diminished 
while the number of boys has slightly increased. Taken as a 



*This does not include the enrolment in the Gei-man parochial school, it being 
impossible to obtain the enrolment for these years. But since the number 
enrolled does not exceed 75, the possible changes are almost negligibly small. 



FIGURES OF ENROLMENT. 21 

whole tlie enrolment in these grades has greatly decreased. One 
explanation for this is to be fonnd in the effort to overcome the 
congestion in these grades due first to midyear promotions extend- 
ing only np to the fifth grade, and secondly to recruits from the 
parochial schools. One of the parochial schools taught only the 
first four grades and another only the first five, but two years have 
since been added to the course of the former and one to the latter. 
Moreover, in October, 1906, there was an increase in the enrol- 
ment in the fifth grade of 2.3 per cent and in 1907 an increase 
of 2.7 per cent in the sixth grade, thus continuing the successive 
upward increase due to the regrading of the schools in 1902-1903. 

Grades seven and eight varied even more than the two pre- 
ceding grades in the number enrolled, the enrolment in the former 
having increased 3.5 per cent in these six years, and in the latter 
11.0 per cent. During these same years the enrolment in both 
high schools increased with but one exception, in October, 1908, 
the enrolment in the Girls' High School was 7.6 per cent less 
than in the preceding year. Since 1903 the enrolment in the 
Boys' High School increased 55.4 per cent, and in the Girls' High 
School 27 per cent. 

When these computations are considered as a whole, three 
things become evident: 1. The regrading of the schools and a 
change in the course of study caused abnormally large fluctuations 
throughout the grades, but obviously for the better. 2. There 
has been a successive upward increase in the enrolment from the 
lower to the upper grades from 1903 to 1908. 3. The boys on 
the average lost more time in the lower grades than the girls. 

In the second deduction we have found at least one factor 
which contributed toward the diminution of the enrolment in 
the elementary grades during the last three years. This is more 
clearly shown in a further comparison of the 'monthly enrolment 
for October with the average enrolment for these years. In 
October, 1907, the enrolment was 6.Q per cent greater than the 
average enrolment for the year. In October, 1906, it was only 
5.1 per cent greater; in 1905, 1 per cent greater; in 1904, 3.6 
per cent greater ; and in 1903 only .7 per cent greater. In other 
words, since 1903 the difference between the monthly enrolment 
for October and the average yearly enrolment has been gradually 
increasing, a total change of 5.9 per cent. 

What is the explanation for this increase in the difference 



22 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 

between the enrolments under question, and lias it reached its 
maximum? 'No doubt the main explanation for this change is 
found in the cooperation of two forces, one psychical, influencing 
parent and child alike, and the other in the regrading of the 
schools and the course of study. In 1902-1903, when the public 
elementary schools were regraded and the course of study com- 
pletely changed, the whole city was stirred to an enthusiasm for 
education and a more general appreciation of the opportunities 
offered by the public schools. This accounts for the unusual 
similarity between the enrolment in October, 1903, and the aver- 
age enrolment for that year. It means that there was such a 
general local revival of interest in learning as to produce abnormal 
conditions, quite obviously for the better, which are still being felt, 
although in a lessened degree. Whether or not the normal has 
been reached, or whether the difference will continue to increase, 
the statistics of the next few years will tell. 



School Census. 

In compiling the school census various assumptions in regard 
to an age standard are possible, each one giving different results. 
It is obvious that if we call a child six years of age during the 
lapse of time from its sixth to its seventh birthday we obtain 
results quite different from those calculated on a basis of five years 
ten months to six years nine months. 

This may in part explain the marked discrepancy between 
the census of the Eeading public schools taken on December 1, 
1908, and the school census shown in table VI, taken from the 
blanks. Since the total enrolment in the elementary grades, 
according to this former census, was 1500 less than the actual 
enrolment in these grades in ISTovember, it is evident that decided 
omissions have been made. A further comparison of these two 
tables shows that all the pupils under six years were either 
omitted, or were called six years old. The latter method seems 
to have been pursued by some teachers, as sho\vn by the fact that 
in a number of cases on the blanks handed in, a child five years 
old upon entrance M^as called six years of age for two successive 
years. 



FIGURES OF ENROLMENT. 



23 





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24 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 



Grade 



Per cent 



17.9 



The average stand- 
ard is on the basis 
of six years ten 
months to seven years 
nine months for the 
seven year old child, 
seven years ten 
months to eight years 
nine months for the 
eight year old child, 
and so on. In table 
VI and diagram 3 the 
same standard is as- 
sumed. 

Of the 10,465 
names of pupils re- 
corded on the blanks 
returned by the 
teachers of the public 
schools, 308 had to 
be omitted for want 
of sufficient data to 
compute the exact 
age in years and 
months, leaving a to- 
tal of 10,1 5 Y. The 
age distribution of 
these children is shown in the following table (VII) and dia- 
gram (4). 



15.4 



14.6 



16.0 



14.1 



10.3] 



7.2 



4.6 



Diagram 3. 



Distribution of 10,157 pupils accord- 
ing to grade. 





Table VII.- 


— DiSTKIBUTIOiSl" AC( 


IJOKDING TO 


Agt:. 


Age 


Number 


Per cent ] 


Age 


Number 


Per cent 


5 


118 


1.2 


13 


972 


9.5 


6 


997 


9.8 


14 


422 


4.1 


7 


1,118 


11.0 


15 


122 


1.2 


8 


1,274 


12.6 


16 


29 


0.3 


9 


1,183 


11.6 


17 


1 


.005 


10 


1,290 


12.7 


18 


1 


.005 


11 


1,300 


12.8 












12 


1,330 


13.1 


Totals 


10,157 


100.00 



The ages varied from five to eighteen years. One hundred 
and eighteen entered at live years of age, which is approximately 
the same number as those fifteen years of age. The number six 



FIGURES OF ENROLMENT. 



25 



1400 



1200 



1000 



800 



600 



400 



200 



5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 1,5 16 17 i 18 
Diagram 4. Distribution oi 10,157 pupils according to age. 

years of age and the number thirteen years of age also approxi- 
mate each other. The same is true of the ages eight, nine, ten, 
eleven, and twelve, the highest number enrolled being twelve years 
of age. The diminution of 3.6 per cent from the twelve year 
olds to the thirteen year olds is undoubtedly due to a number 
leaving school at the age of twelve. Even if we assume that all 
the children twelve years old and less in the eighth grade enter 
the high schools, we still have a reduction of approximately 2.5 
per cent. 

Since the thirteen year olds are scattered throughout the 
grades and the fourteen year olds in nil but the first grade, the 
great amount of elimination at these ages is not shown in a table 
or diagram based upon the distribution by grade. But in dia- 
gram 4 which shows the relative number and distribution on the 
age basis, the great efflux at the' ages of thirteen and fourteen 
is clearly demonstrated. From the twelve year olds to the four- 
teen year olds there is a diminution of 358 and from the thirteen 
year olds to the fourteen year olds a reduction of 550. Deduct- 
ing from these numbers 156 who are thirteen years of age and 143 
fourteen years of age in the eighth grade, minus the average per 
cent of those who are eliminated in this grade, and assuming the 
remainder to enter the High School, we have approximately 215 
who leave school at the age of thirteen years and 430 at the age 
of fourteen. 



III. 

Eetardation. 



Pctg. of 

Total No. of 

Students 


Pctg. of 

Total 

Population 


86.45 


18.4 


7.02 


1.4 


4.15 


.88 


1.02 


.21 


.805 


•.IT 


.18 


.03 


.34 


.07 



In the World's WorJc for May, 1909, Mr. James P. Monroe 
in the first of a series of articles on educational problems submits 
llio following table : 



Schools No. of 

Students 

Elementary public 16,069,305 

Elementary private 1,304,547 

Secondary high, public. . . . 771,687 

Secondary prep., private. . 190,099 

Universities and colleges.. 149,700 

Technological schools 33,700 

Professional schools 63,256 

Totals 18,582,294 99.965 21.16 



A mere glance at the table shows that the commonly used 
phrase "popular education" is certainly a misnomer. With an 
enrolment of only 4 per cent in the public high schools as com- 
pared with an enrolment of 86 per cent in the elementary 
schools, the need of research along this line becomes at once 
apparent. But even this does not show the real facts in the case, 
since it deals only with general problems. They are not detailed 
enough to be of real constructive value in the elementary grades, 
where elimination prevails in all our large cities. At the root 
of elimination is the kindred problem of retardation, which means 
that the children concerned are above normal age for their grade. 

That these two factors are cooperative is sho^vn by the fact 
that of the 48 per cent of boys and girls who left the fifth and 
sixth grades to go to work, nearly one-half (49 per cent) repeated 
from one to two years, and nearly one-sixth (about 15 per cent) 

. (26) 



RETARDATION. 27 

repeated three years, as over against the 3 per cent who con- 
tinued to the eighth grade. 

The question of what constitutes "normal age" for the differ- 
ent grades has been variously fixed from six to nine years for the 
first grade, but whatever the basis, the selection must be more or 
less arbitrary. The consensus of opinion, however, seems to be that 
all pupils of the first grade under eight years of age are of normal 
age; above that age they are retarded. This is a fair assumption, 
because comparatively few enter the first grade at eight years of 
age or over, and relatively many enter the first grade at the age 
of seven. But it seems that there ought to be not only a maximum 
age standard for the normal children in the different grades, but 
also a minimum, thus dividing the pupils into three classes, the 
retarded, or those above normal age for the grade, those of normal 
age, and those below normal age. 

In this treatise, therefore, all pupils eight years of age and 
over in the first grade, nine years and over in the third, and so on, 
are called retarded. All pupils between the ages six and seven in 
the first grade, seven and eight in the second, and so on, are 
classed as of normal age. All pupils below six years in the first 
grade, below seven years in the second, and so on, are classed as 
below normal age. 

The progress of the two sexes throughout the grades seems 
to be unequal. The boys gradually fall behind. Although only 
1.6 per cent more of the boys than of the girls of the first grade 
are retarded, by the time the eighth grade is completed there is a 
total difference of 8.1 per cent. The same is true in regard to the 
number of pupils of normal age, with but one exception, — in the 
eighth grade the number of boys of normal age is 3.2 per cent 
greater than the number of girls. This is due to the fact that 
more of the retarded girls fourteen years and over continue to the 
eighth grade than of the boys. 

The proof of this is demonstrated by a comparison of the 
number of boys and girls retarded in grades five, seven, and eight. 
Trom a difference of 10.7 per cent in the fifth grade, there remains 
a difference of only 6.0 per cent in the seventh, and only 1.0 per 
cent in the eighth. 



28 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 
Table VIII. — Pupils Above ISTokmal Age in Each Geade. 

Grade 
1 

2 
3 
4 

5 
6 

7 



M. 

131 


Number 
F. 

124 


Total 

255 


M. 

14.9 


Per cent 
F. 

13.3 


Average 

14.1 


267 


145 


412 


33.7 


18.8 


26.3 


274 


213 


487 


35.7 


29.8 


32.8 


391 


321 


712 


48.0 


39.6 


43.8 


381 


253 


634 


49.4 


38.7 


44.1 


195 


157 


352 


36.2 


30.9 


33.6 


81 
35 


69 

48 


150 

83 


23.5 
18.1 


17.5 
17.1 


20.5 
17.9 



Totals 1735 1330 3085 34.4 26.3 30.4 

Table IX. — Pupils of ISTokmal Age in Each Geade. 

Grade 
1 

2 
3 

4 
5 
6 

7 
8 



M. 

690 


Number 
F. 

750 


Total 
1440 


M. 

78.5 


Per cent 
F. 

80.3 


Average 

79.2 


500 


590 


1090 


63.2 


76.6 


69.9 


476 


468 


944 


61.9 


65.6 


63.8 


390 


442 


832 


47.9 


54.6 


51.3 


365 


364 


729 


47.2 


55.4 


51.3 


307 


304 


611 


57.0 


59.8 


58.4 


227 


272 


499 


66.0 


69.6 


■ 67.8 


128 


171 


299 


66.3 


63.1 


64.7 



Totals 3083 3361 6444 60.4 66.5 63.5 

Table X.- — Pupils Below Xokmal Age in Each Grade. 



:ade 




Number 






Per cent 






M. 


F. 


Total 


M. 


F. 


Average 


1 


58 


60 


118 


6.6 


6.4 


6.5 


2 


25 


35 


60 


3.1 


4.6 


3.9 


3 


18 


33 


51 


2.4 


4.6 


3.5 


4 


33 


47 


80 


4.1 


5.8 


4.9 



5 28 39 67 3.6 5.9 4.8 

6 37 47 84 6.8 9.3 8.1 

7 36 50 86 10.5 12.9 11.7 

8 30 52 82 15.6 19.2 17.4 

Total 265 363 628 5.2 7.2 6.2 



RETARDATION. 



29 




Diagram 5. Per cent of male (black bars) and female (white bars) retarded 
in each grade. 




Diagram 6. Per cent of male and female of normal age in each grade. 




1 2345678 

Diagram 7. Per cent of male and female below normal age in each grade. 



30 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 



The variations between boys and girls are showti more for- 
cibly in diagram 5. Besides showing the relative inequality 
between the number of boys retarded and the number of girls 
retarded, the curves show that the retardation among the boys 
increases steadily to the end of the fifth grade, and among the 
girls only to the end of the fourth grade. In other words, the per- 
ceptible elimination among the girls begins in grade five and 
among the boys in grade six. Furthermore, since more of the 
retarded girls fourteen years of age and over continue to the 
eighth grade than of the boys, the curves in the eighth grade almost 
coincide. 

Diagram 6 shows the relative number of boys and girls of 
normal age in each grade. The curves with but one exception 
are just the reverse of the curves in the previous diagram, being 
but slightly influenced by the comparatively few below normal 
age represented in diagram 7. The most perceptible influence 
is in the eighth grade, where the number below normal age, com- 
pared with the total enrolment in this grade, reaches its maximum. 

100 
88 
80 
72 
64 
56 





12 3 45678 

Diagram 8. Per cent of pupils of normal age (white), above normal 
(black), and below normal (dotted) in each grade. 

Disregarding sex differences, and representing the total enrol- 
ment in the elementary grades by means of a square as shown 



RETARDATION. 31 

in diagram 8, the relative numbers of the three groups of pupils 
are shown for each grade. Finally disregarding also the grades 
the relative number in each group is shown in diagram 9. 

HHM^H^^^^^H^^^HHnH|^nH^HHB| Per cent 
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H 63.5 



Above 
Normal 



30. 



Below ^^^^H g,2 

Normal ^^^^H 

Diagram 9. Relative number of pupils of normal age, above normal and 
below normal. 

Eeconstructing tables VIII, IX and X on the basis of age 
instead of grade, we obtain the three following tables (^I, XII 
and XIII). As stated above, the five year olds are all classed as 
below normal age. From the ages six to ten, the per cent of those 
below normal rises and falls in alternate years, ranging from 4.8 
per cent for the seven year olds to 7.2 per cent for the ten year 
olds, the maximum number of those below normal. For the ages 
eleven and twelve there is again a gradual decrease. The totals 
show 2 per cent more girls than boys below normal. 

Table XI. — Pupils Below Xoemal Age (on Basis of Age). 



Age 




Number 






Per cent 






M. 


F. 


Total 


M. 


F. 


Averag( 


5 


58 


60 


118 


100.0 


100.0 


100.0 


6 


25 


35 


60 


5.1 


6.9 


6.0 


Y 


19 


.38 


57 


3.9 


5.8 


4.8 


8 


33 


44 


- 77 


5.3 


6.7 


6.0 


9 


30 


39- 


69 


4.8 


6.9 


5.8 


10 


39 


55 


94 


6.1 


8.4 


7.2 


11 


34 


48 


82 


5.1 


7.6 


6.3 


12 


27 


44 


71 


3.9 


6.8 


5.3 



Totals 265 363 628 5.2 7.2 6.2 

As shown in table XII there is a slight increase in the per cent 
of normal age pupils from the six year olds to the seven year olds 
for both male and female, but from then on the numbers decrease 
rather decidedly and uninterruptedly to the fourteen years olds, 
of whom only 34.1 per cent are of normal age. The average 



32 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF BETARDATION. 



decrease for the nine years is 7.5 per cent, 
is crossed at the age of eleven. 



The 50 per cent mark 



Table XII. — Pupils of IN'okmal Age (on Basis of Age). 



Age 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 



M. 

465 
461 
501 
418 
376 
329 
287 
183 
63 



Number 
F. 

472 
600 
521 
415 
428 
320 
303 
222 
80 



Total 
937 

1061 
1022 
833 
804 
649 
590 
405 
143 



M. 

94.9 
96.1 
80.4 
67.2 
59.2 
48.9 
41.8 
34.5 
28.8 



Per cent 
F. 

93.1 

94.2 

80.1 
74.1 
65.4 
51.0 

4-7.2 
50.2 
39.4 



Totals 3083 3361 6444 



60.4 66.5 
Average decrease 



Average 

94.0 
95.2 
80.3 
70.7 
62.3 
50.0 
44.5 
42.3 
34.1 

63.5 

7.5 



Table XIII. — Pupils Above ISTokmal Age (on Basis of Age). 



Age 



10 

11 

12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 



M. 

89 

174 

221 

309 

373 

347 

156 

73 

11 

1 

1 



Number 
F. 

86 
107 
171 
260 
296 
220 
123 

49 

18 





Totals 1755 1330 



Total 

175 

281 

392 

569 

669 

567 

279 

122 

29 

1 

1 

3085 



M. 

14.3 

28.0 

34.7 

46.0 

54.3 

65.5 

71.2 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 



Per cent 
F. 

13.2 

19.0 

26.2 

41.4 

46.0 

49.8 

60.6 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 



Average 

13.7 
23.5 
30.5 

43.7 

50.2 

57.7 

65.9 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 

100.0 



26.3 



Average decrease 



30.4 

8.7 



As might he expected, the number and per cent of the pupils 
above normal age form an increasing series. Beginning with 
13.7 per cent for the eight year olds, they increase to 65.9 per 
cent for the fourteen year olds, an approximate increase of five 
times the number in six years. All children fifteen years of age 
iind over are classed as over age. The average per cent of increase 
from eight to fourteen years is 8.7 per cent. 



RETAEDATION. 33 

Average Time Spext i^^ Grade. 

Probably the most significaut and lielpfiil of the tables is 
table XIV showing the average time spent in the elementary grades 
one to eight. In the computation of this table only the complete 
records of those born in this country were taken. The results 
obtained are those of native born children, placed under four 
headings, — first those who completed the grade in a half year ; 
secondly those who completed the grade in one year ; thirdly those 
who completed the grade in a year and a half; and fourthly those 
who spent two years and over in the grade. 

Table XIV. — Average Time Speis^t ij^t Each of the Eight 
Elemeattary Grades. 

Per cent of pupils enrolled who completed the grade in 

Grade 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 

Av. 1.7 1.7 1.7 71.5 73.1 72.3 7.2 7.6 7.4 19.6 17.5 81.6 

A mere glance at the table shows that the once current belief 
that the number who gain time is approximately equal to the 
number who lose time, or the average time gained is approxi- 
mately equal to the average time lost, is not based on fact. 

In grade one only 2 per cent completed the grade in a half 
year, as over against 31 per cent who spent two years and over 
in this grade. Adding to this number the 19.4 per cent who lost 
a half year, we have 50.5 per cent who lost time and only 2 per 
cent who gained time, leaving 47.8 per cent who completed the 
grade in the allotted time of one year. ?n the second grade there 
is a decided improvement, but even here 30.9 per cent lost time 
as compared with 1.6 per cent who gained a half year. 

In grade three the number losing again increases, 12 per 
cent having lost a half year and 2(3.5 per cent one year and over. 
Only 59.5 per cent completed the grade in one year, 8.3 per cent 
less than in the second grade. In the fourth and fifth grades the 
number gaining a half year increased respectively to 4.3 per cent 





i year 






1 year 






1^ j'ears 


2 years and 


over 


M. 


F. 


A. 


M. 


F. 


A. 


M. 


F. 


A. 


M. 


F. 


A. 


1.7 


2.6 


2.1 


45.2 


50.6 


47.8 


19.2 


19.7 


19.4 


34.0 


1^8.4 


31.1 


1.6 


1.6 


1.6 


67.4 


68.2 


67.8 


12.1 


9.6 


10.8 


19.7 


20.5 


20.1 


2.0 


2.0 


2.0 


59.4 


59.5 


59.5 


11.4 


12.7 


12.1 


27.2 


25.8 


26.5 


5.9 


2.8 


4.3 


60.4 


62.6 


60.8 


9.3 


12.2 


11.8 


24.3 


22.4 


23.1 


2.2 


4.0 


3.1 


66.7 


68.2 


67.4 


5.7 


6.4 


6.1 


25.0 


21.5 


23.2 


.3 


.6 


.5 


83.5 


89.4 


86.4 




.28 


.14 


16.1 


9.8 


12.9 




.4 


.2 


95.1 


91.4 


93.3 








4.9 


7.7 


6.3 








94.3 


95.7 


95.0 








5.7 


4.3 


5.0 



34 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 

and 3.1 per cent. The total number losing diminished to 34.9 
per cent and 29.3 per cent, leaving 60.8 per cent who completed 
the fourth grade in one year, and 67.4 per cent, the fifth grade. 

Since midyear promotions extend only to the fifth grade, a 
gain in time in grades six, seven, and eight is exceptional. In 
these three grades the numbers losing one year and more are 
respectively 12.9 per cent, 6.3 per cent, and 5 per cent, leaving 
86.4 per cent who completed the sixth grade in one year, 93.3 
per cent the seventh, and 95 per cent the eighth. 

On the average only l.Y per cent in the elementary grades 
gain a half year, and this gain is confined almost exclusively 
to the first five grades; 72.3 per cent complete the grade in one 
year; 7.4 per cent lose one-half year and .18.6 per cent lose one 
year or over. This means that on the average at least 26 per 
cent of those enrolled in the elementary grades are repeaters, of 
whom approximately 7 per cent lose a half year. 

The table also shows decided variations between boys and 
girls. In grade one only 45 per cent of the boys completed the 
grade in one year, and 50 per cent of the girls; 34 per cent of 
the boys and only 28 per cent of the girls spent two years or 
more in grade one. In the second and third grades the progress 
was approximately equal, but in grades four and five about 2 
per cent more of the girls completed the grade in one year. In 
grade four 2 per cent, and in grade five nearly 4 per cent 
more of the boys lost one year or more. Again in grade six 
nearly 6 per cent more of the girls completed the grade in one 
year. The seventh grade is the only one in which more boys than 
girls progressed normally. ISTinety-five per cent of the boys and 
only 91 per cent of the girls completed the grade in one year, 
and in the eighth grade the progress was again approximately 
equal. 

On the average in the elementary grades nearly 2 per cent 
more of the girls completed the grade in one year, and 2 per 
cent more of the boys spent two years or more in the same grade. 
Grades one, four, five, and six seem to be better adapted for the 
progress of the girl than the boy. 

Closely allied to the table discussed is table XV, showino- 
the per cent of actual gain and loss in each grade. As noted 
above only 2 per cent in the first grade gained time by com- 



RETARDATION, 



35 





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36 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 

pleting the grade in a half year, 48 per cent completed the grade 
in the normal time of one year, leaving just about half the class 
who lost from one-half to four and a half years. IsTineteen per 
cent lost a half year, 21 per cent lost one year, and 4 per cent 
one and a half years, leaving 5 per cent who lost two years and 
over in this grade. In actual numbers, we find 28 boys and 16 
girls,, who were in grade one three years ; 4 boys and 3 girls three 
years and a half, 12 boys and 4 girls four years, one boy five 
years, and two boys five and a half years, — ^enough pupils for four 
special classes. 

Of the second grade pupils 2.Y per cent had gained a half 
year, and 35 per cent made normal progress. This added to the 
number who gained, leaves 62 per cent who lost from one-half 
to six years in the first two grades. Of these 12 per cent had 
lost a half year, 30 per cent one year, and 6 per cent one and 
a half years. The balance 15 per cent had lost from two to six 
years, and 5 per cent from three to six years, i.e. 46 boys had 
lost from three to six years, and 22 girls from three to five years. 
Six boys and three girls had lost four years, two boys four and 
a half years, one girl five years, one boy five and a half years, 
and one boy six years, a total of 68 pupils in the second grade 
who needed special attention. 

In the third grade 5 per cent had gained time, .6 per cent 
gaining a whole year. Only 27 per cent had made normal prog- 
ress and 68 per cent had lost from one-half to five years. Fifty- 
seven per cent had lost one year and over, 26 per cent two years 
and over, 9 per cent three years and over, and 4 per cent four 
years and over. Thirty-seven boys and 26 girls had lost from 
three to three and a half years, and 24 boys and 23 girls from 
four to five years, a total of 61 boys and 49 girls who had lost 
three years and over. 

The number retarded reaches its maximum in the fourth 
grade. Of the pupils enrolled in this grade 5 per cent had 
gained a half year in the first three grades and one per cent one 
year. Only 19 per cent had gone normally through the grades, 
leaving 75 per cent who lost from one-half to five and a half 
years. Sixty-seven per cent had lost one year and over, 35 per 
cent two years and over, and 12 per cent three years and over. 
In actaal numbers, we find 57 boys and 66 girls who lost from 
three to three and a half years, 15 boys and 12 girls from four 
to four and a half, and 4 girls five to five and a half years, a 
total of 72 boys and 82 girls, who spent on the average two years 
or more in their respective grades. 



I 






RETARDATION. 37 

Since most of the greatly retarded do not get beyond the 
fourth grade, the fifth grade shows the beginning of improved 
conditions. By the time this grade is reached approximately 23 
per cent have been eliminated, obviously representing the greatly 
retarded, very few of whom will receive further training other 
than in the school of experience. This does not mean that retarda- 
tion stops here. There are some fond parents who in spite of 
the slow progress of their children keep on sending them even 
after the age limit of legally permissible withdrawal has been 
passed. One girl in the fifth grade had lost five and a half years, 
having attended school for ten and a half years, and still kept 
on coming although five years above the average age of the grade. 
The same is true of two boys in this grade, who had lost four 
and a half years ; 18 boys and 3 girls had lost four years, 8 boys 
and 2 girls three and a half years, and 57 boys and 23 girls three 
years, a total of 83 boys and 28 girls who had lost three years 
and over, most of whom are above fourteen years of age% Twenty- 
one per cent had progressed normally and 8.4 per cent had 
gained time. 

In grade six the improved conditions continue. Thirteen per 
cent had gained from one-half to two years and 25 per cent had 
made normal progress. Retardation, however, still makes its 
claim, although to a much less degree. Thirty-one per cent had 
lost one year, 15 per cent two years, and only 6 per cent three 
years and over, — a little more than half as many as in the fifth 
grade. Twenty-one boys and 11 girls had lost three years, one 
boy and one girl three and a half years, and 4 boys and 5 girls 
four years. 

Of the seventh grade 12 per cent had gained from one-half 
to two years, and 30 per cent had progressed normally. Approxi- 
mately the same number as in the preceding grade, 30 per cent, 
had lost one year, but only 13 per cent had lost two years, and 
3.7 per cent from three to four years. About 13 per cent of those 
retarded two years and over, and 6 per cent of those retarded 
three years and over, will therefore be eliminated in the sixth grade. 
Eleven boys and three girls had lost three years, one boy and one 
girl three and a half years, and one boy and one girl four years, 
a total of 13 boys and 5 girls who had lost from three to four 

years. 

In the eighth grade the number who gained time increases to 
17 per cent and those who progressed normally to 34 per cent. 
The number who had lost only one year decreases to 26 per cent, 



38 EXTENT AND CAUSE8 OF RETARDATION. 

and those who had lost two years to 8 per cent. Two boys had lost 
four years, one boy three and a half years, and five boys and three 
girls three years, a total of eight boys and three girls who had 
lost three years and over. 

Summing uj) the losses and gains of the 4273 boys and 4195 
girls included in this discussion, we have 229 boys and 262 girls 
who gained from one-half to two years, 1380 boys and 1555 girls 
made normal progress, and 2664 boys and 2378 girls lost from 
one-half to six years. Of the latter 78 boys and 53 girls lost 
four years and over, and 331 boys and 224 girls lost three years 
and over. In other words, 5.8 per cent of those enrolled in the 
elementary grades gained time, 34.7 per cent made normal prog- 
ress, and 59.5 per cent lost time, of whom 1.8 per cent lost four 
years and over, and 6.8 per cent three years and over. One per 
cent more of the number of girls gained time and 5 per cent 
more made normal progress, an excess in loss of 6 per cent for 
the boys. 

The actual periods gained and lost are shown in terms in 
tables XVI, XVII, and XVIII. Of the 4262 boys included in the 
table, 228 gained from one to four terms, 1380 made normal prog- 
ress, and 2654 lost from one to twelve terms. In other words, out 
of every one hundred boys enrolled in the elementary grades 5 
gained time, 33 made normal progress, and 62 lost time. Of 
the 4195 girls, 262 gained from one to four terms, 1555 made 
normal progress, and 2378 lost from one to eleven terms, i.e., 6 
in every one hundred gained time, 37 made normal progress, and 
57 lost time. Thus for every one hundred boys and girls enrolled 
in the elementary grades, one more of the girls gained time, four 
more made normal progress, and five less lost time. 

As shown in table XIX, of the 8457 boys and girls, 490 or 
5.8 per cent gained time, 2935 or 34.3 per cent made normal 
progress, and 5032 or 59.5 per cent lost time. Out of every one 
hundred pupils enrolled approximately 6 gained time, 35 made 
normal progress, and 59 lost time, the amount varying from one 
to twelve terms. The loss sustained in any one year is less than 
half the number of pupils who have lost a term or' more at some 
time during their school life. As previously stated, only about 
26 per cent fail of promotion in any one year, i.e. lose time, as 
over against 59 per cent based upon the school history. 

Thus far we have dealt only with the number of pupils who 
gained time, made normal progress, and lost time. Finding now 
the number of terms attended or at least belonged by these pupils, 
we obtain the followino; table : 



RETARDATION. 



39 



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40 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 
Table XIX. — Summary of School Progress of 8457 Pupils. 

No. of terms No. of terms No. of terms No. of terms 

gained lost required for actually 

normal prog. required 

Male 320 8,042 24,774 32,496 

Female 401 6,737 25,141 31,477 



Total 721 14,779 49,915 63,973 

The number of terms required by the girls for normal prog- 
ress exceeds the number required by the male by 367, althougb 
67 less in number. The reason for this is that the number of 
girls in grades seven and eight included in this discussion is 
considerably larger than the number of boys, and since these 
belonged normally thirteen and fifteen terms, they accelerate 
the number of months required. The computations were made 
upon the basis of the grade in which the child was registered in 
February, 1909. 

Taking table XIX as it stands, the assumption would neces- 
sarily have to be that during the entire school history of each 
child, it belonged to school every month and term. This of 
course is not the case. Undoubtedly a number of those who lost 
two, three, or more years have missed many months, some an entire 
term, and some even an entire year. Considered from an educa- 
tional standpoint they are losses nevertheless. From a financial 
standpoint the problem may be somewhat different. But since 
the number of pupils per teacher is not determined by the average 
attendance but by the actual number enrolled, the loss of an 
entire month or two, or even a term, does not affect the schools 
economically. Irregular attendance does not mean a proportionate 
decrease in the school expenditure. The schools are affected from 
an economical standpoint by only the comparative few who missed 
an entire year, or at least a term. 

In the superintendent's report for 1906 and 1907 the monthly 
expenditures per pupil for the years ending February 24, 1905, 
and February 23, 1906, are given as $1.48 and $1.54 respectively. 
Since the loss and gain in the above table cover in part the his- 
tory of school progress extending over at least eleven years, end- 
ing February, 1909, let us assume that the average monthly 
expenditure per child was $1.40, or $6.00 per term. 

Converting table XIX into economic or financial equivalents 
according to this assumption, we obtain the following table: 





RETARDATION. 


41 


Table XX. — The School Peogkess of 8457 P 


CPILS 


Expressed Financially. 




Amt. saved 


Amt. spent Amt. required 


Amt. 


through gain 


on for 


actually 


in progress 


repetition ncrmal prog. 


spent 


Male .... $1,920 


$48,252 $148,644 


$194,976 


Female . .. 2,406 


40,422 150,846 


188,862 



Total 



$4,326 



$88,674 



$299,490 



$383,838 



The table shows that approximately 25 per cent of the money 
spent in the education of the boys was spent in repetition, and 
in the education of the girls 21 per cent, a total average of 23 
per cent. Although 67 less in number the girls made 56 per cent 
of the total gain and the boys only 44 per cent. Of the money 
spent for repetition the boys claim 54 per cent and the girls 46 
per cent. The average expenditure per boy for the 4262 included 
in this discussion and on the above basis was $45.7^ and for 
the 4195 girls $45.02. This would lead to the conclusion that 
on the average the elementary education of the boy costs 72 cents 
more than the education of the girl. 

In diagram 10 the relation of the number of terms gained 
and lost by these 8457 boys and girls is shown graphically. As 



2200 



2000 



1800 



1600 



1400 



1200 



1000 



800 



600 



400 



200 




4 3 21 123456789 10 U 12 
Diagram 10. Number of terms gained and lost by 8457 boys and girls in the elementary 
grades. (White, gain; black, loss.) 

previously stated there are comparatively few promotions and 
entrances in February, so that the losses of one, three, and five 



42 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 

terms are approximately only one- 
third as numerous as those of two, 
four, and six terms. The relative 
amounts of gain and loss are 
shown in diagram 11, the latter be- 
ing approximately twenty times as 
large as the former. 

Pkomotions. 

According to the system in 
vogue two promotions are made an- 
nually, one in January, extending 
Gain Loss ^'^J through the first five grades, 

Diagram 11. Relative gaia and and the Othor in June, the prOmO- 

loss of 8457 pupils in the elemen- ,. -< • /•, i-i -.i . 

tary grades. tious being 01 two kiuds, either to 

a higher class or a higher grade. 
Furthermore, during the two terms of 190Y-1908, 113 were pro- 
moted to a higher class and 26 to a higher grade. Adding these 
to the promotions in January and June gives 1Y91 promotions to 
a higher class and 832 promotions to a higher grade for the former, 
and 844 promotions to a higher class and 6642 promotions to a 
higher grade for the latter. 

As yet there is no uniformity of opinion in regard to the 
method of obtaining the percentage of promotions. The question 
is, shall we use the total enrolment, the average enrolment, or the 
enrolment for the last month of each term, as the basis ? On 
account of the great exodus in the fall and spring of the year it 
is, no doubt, an injustice to the system as well as to teachers 
and school authorities to use the total enrolment as the basis. It 
means basing the rate of promotion not only on the actual enrol- 
ment, but on a large additional number who have left school 
before they could be promoted. In this particular instance it 
would include 632, or 5.5 per cent of the total enrolment, who left 
school during the first term, and 9Y7, or 8.5 per cent, who left 
school during the second term. 

The average enrolment forms a more correct basis, especially 
for the first term, which was only six less than the January enrol- 
ment. Since the total enrolment naturally keeps on increasing 
and the average enrolment decreasing during the second term, 
the latter also forms the more correct basis. It is not, however, 
as accurate as the June enrolment, which in this case was 2.7 per 
cent less than the average enrolment. 



RETARDATION. 43 

For all school systems in whicli the name of the child is kept 
on the roll until such child has actually left school and is not 
simply a case of irregular attendance, the enrolment in January 
for the first term and the June enrolment for the second term 
undoubtedly form the fairest bases, since they represent the actual 
enrolment at the time of promotion, disregarding the comparatively 
few who leave during these months. 

The following table shows the varied results obtained by 
these methods : 

Table XXI. — Results Obtained by Three Different 
Methods for Computing Percentages of Promotion. 









Per cent 


Per cent 


Per cent 




^ 




of total 


of av. 


of month's 






Number 


enrolment 


enrolment 


enrolment 


Jan. jDro. to higher 


grade 


832 


7.2 


7.6 


7.6 


a i( u 


class 


1791 


15.5 


16.5 


16.4 


June 


grade 


6642 


56.2 


63.1 


^5.1 


a a a 


class 


844 


7.1 


8.0 


8.3 



On account of the comparatively few promotions to a higher 
grade in January, the difference between total enrolment and 
the average and January enrolment is only .4 per cent, and 
even for the promotions to a higher class the difference is only 

1 per cent. The disparity is more forcibly shown in the 
results obtained for the second term. Here the difference between 
the first and the second methods for the promotions to a higher 
grade is 6.9 per cent, and between the second and third methods 

2 per cent. Adding the per cent of promotion to a higher grade 
and a higher class for both terms we obtain 22.7, 24.1, and 
24.0 per cent respectively for the three methods as the number 
promoted the first term, and 63.3, 71.1, and 73.4 per cent as the 
number promoted the second term, a total difference of 10 per cent 
between the first and third methods for the second tenn. 

With a difference for the first term of 8.8 per cent between 
the number promoted to a higher grade and the number pro- 
moted to a higher class, and for the second term a difference of 
56.8 per cent, it would seem that the system of midyear promo- 
tions is not yet fully established. It means more or less annual 
congestion, especially in grades four and five, with an inevitable 
loss of a half year to a large number of those who enter these 
grades in February. Approximately two-thirds of the girls and 
three-fourths of the boys who entered the fifth grade in February, 
1908, lost the half year. 



M EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 

In this connection it is essential to consider also the admis- 
sions to the first grade, as shown in the following table: 

Table XXII. — Admission to the Fikst Gkade. 

Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. March April May June Total 

1907-08— 

1085 129 15 2 131 97 14 11 3 36 1523 

1908-09— 

1246 21 7 1 2 334 44 6 2 1663 

It is evident that very rarely does an admission in Janu- 
ary or June result in gain to a child, in a system having midyear 
promotions. The same is true for the months of December and 
May. For the months of ISTovember and April the chances for 
a gain of two months are one in fifteen. Of those who entered 
in March about one in ten gained the one month by completing 
the half year in four months. 

The midyear system not having been fully installed, consid- 
erable loss was also sustained by those who entered the first grade 
in February, 1907 and 1908. Only one in eight completed the 
first grade in one year, thus causing a considerable loss to the 
292 who entered the first grade from January to June, 1908. 
At this rate many of the half year losses, and a considerable num- 
ber of the one year and a year and a half, can be accounted for, 
as we go up the grades. A failure in promotion at the end of 
the year meant in most cases another whole year in the same 
grade. 

In the second grade only 164 pupils were promoted to the 
third grade in February, 1909, and these were confined to 20 
of the 44 teachers in this grade. In other words 24 teachers made 
no promotions at this time and yet there were 167 boys and girls 
who had been in the grade a year and a half, and 259 two years. 
About the same thing is true of the third grade. Out of 41 
teachers of this grade only 19 promoted from the second to the 
third grade in February, 1909. The total number promoted was 
128, and there were 135 who had been in the grade a year and a 
half and 227 two years. 

As shown in the above table, however, great improvements 
have been made during the last year by confining admissions to 
the first grade to the first month of each term. For the last ihree 
months of the first term the number admitted has been reduced 
from 148 to 10, and for the last three months of the second term 
from 50 to 8, none having entered in June as compared with 36 
the preceding year. 



IV. 

Age of Entkaistce. 

In the discussion of retardation we have assumed a child 
five years of age or less to be below normal age for the first 
grade, from six to seven years of normal age, and eight years 
and over above normal age. Computing ages of entrance to the 
first grade for the eight elementary grades shows that the ages 
varied from three and a half to twelve and a half years. Three 
girls entered the first grade at three and a half years of age, one 
boy and seven girls at four years of age, and twenty-one boys and 
twenty girls ^t four and a half years. Adding these to the five 
year olds we have a total of 23.5 per cent of those who entered 
the first grade and are now in the eighth, who were below normal 
age at the time of entrance. Of those who entered the first grade 
and are now in the seventh, 23.3 per cent were below normal age, 
and in the sixth grade 21.4: per cent. Approximately the same 
number of those who entered the first grade and are now in the 
fourth and fifth grades, were below normal age, 20.5 per cent of 
the former and 22.3 per cent of the latter. 

During the last three years decided reductions have been 
made in the group below normal age. Of the third grade only 
13.5 per cent entered the first grade below normal, of the second 
grade 12.3 per cent, and of the first only 10.7 per cent, a total 
reduction of 12.8 per cent in approximately eight years and a very 
marked improvement. 

Of the normal age group of those who entered at the age 
of six, the number increased from 63.9 per cent for the eighth 
grade, to 71.6 per cent for the third grade, and to 69.0 per cent 
for the first grade. Simultaneously the number who entered the 
first grade at the age of seven increased from 10.0 per cent for 
the eighth grade to 14.9 per cent for the first grade. In other 
words, the normal age group of entrance to the first grade increased 
10 per cent in the last eight years. 

Since elimination is obviously greatest among the over-age 
group, very few of them reach the eighth grade. Of those who 
enter the first grade at the age of eight only one-sixth reach the 
eighth grade, and only one in ten of these nine years old at 
entrance reach the seventh grade. It was therefore impossible 

(45) 



46 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 

to measure accurately the changes in the per cent of over-age 
pupils upon entrance, for these eight years. For the last two 
years the percentages of over-age pupils were 5.5 and 5.3 per 
cent, the ages of the former varying from eight to twelve, and 
of the latter from eight to eleven. 

As shown in the following table there is a decided difference 
between the average ages of those who completed the grade in a 
half year, a year, a year and a half, and those who spent two years 
or more in the same grades. The average reduction between the 
first and last group for the first four years was six-tenths of a year. 

Table XXIII. — Average Ages of Pupils Who Spent a Half 

Yeae, a Year, a Year and a Half, and Two Years 

AND Over in the Same Grade. 



ades 


i year 


1 year 


li years 


2 years and over 


1 


7.06 


6.6Y 


6.38 


• 6.21 


2 


8.00 


Y.63 


7.54 


7.26 


3 


8.91 


8.Y7 


8.66 


8.47 


4 


9.85 


9.94 


9.68 


9.47 


5 


10.Y4 


10.54 


10.62 


10.88 



The average ages of the pupils who spent two years and over 
in the same grade increased .67 of a year above the normal allow- 
ance from the first to the fifth grade. The rate of increase in 
this connection is especially worthy of note. The increase from 
the first to the second grade is only .05 of a year above the normal, 
but from the second to the third grade .21 of a year. Then from 
the third to the fourth grade there is no increase above the normal, 
but from the fourth to the fifth grade there is a decided increase 
of .41 of a year above the normal. This seems to indicate that 
the adaptation of the course of study or methods of teaching to 
the average mental status of the pupils enrolled, varies in the 
different grades, the average child taking longer to complete some 
grades than others. 

On the average there is very little difference between the 
ages of entrance of the boys and girls. As shown in the following 
table the average of entrance of the boys to the first grade was 
6.28 years and of the girls 6.27 j^ears. But on account of the 
greater retardation among the boys, the difference increases to 
almost a fourth of a j^ear in the fourth grade. The reduction below 
the normal rate of increase for the boys from the fourth to the 
fifth grade, and for the girls from the fifth to the sixth grade, 



AGE OF ENTRANCE. 47 

seems to contradict the statement that for the boys retardation 
reaches its maximum in the fifth grade and for the girls in the 
fourth grade. The reason for this apparent anomaly is found 
in table XIV, which shows that 5.9 per cent of the boys and only 
2.8 per cent of the girls completed the fourth grade in a half 
year, thus reducing the age for the former in the fifth grade. But 
in this same grade 1.9 per cent more of the boys spent two years 
and over in the grade. 

The maximum effect of retardation in increasing the average 
age of the grade is .TO of a year in the fourth grade for the boys, 
and .50 of a year in the fifth grade for the girls. In other 
words, it will take the average boy of the fourth grade 8.70 years 
to complete the eight elementary grades and the average girl 
of the fifth grade 8.50 years. This would seem to indicate that 
the course of study or method of teaching is too advanced for the 
average child and is responsible for some of the retardation. 



Table XXIV.- 


— Average Ages 


OF Pupils in 


THE ElE 




Geades 


isr 


0. 


CTOBEE, 


1908. 




Grade 


Male 






Female 




Differences 


1 


6.28 






6.27 




.01 


2 


7.62 






7.54 




.08 


3 


8.77 






8.69 




.08 


4 


9.98 






9.75 




.23 


5 


10.92 






10.77 




.15 


6 


11.71 






11.53 




.18 


7 


12.68 






12.37 




.29 


8 


13.70 






13.54 




.16 



The effect of elimination becomes especially operative from 
the fifth to the sixth grade, reducing the average age for the 
boys .21 of a year and for the girls .24 of a year. In the seventh 
grade is found the maximum difference of .29 of a year between 
the ages of the boys and girls, there being another reduction of 
.16 of a year for the girls and only .03 of a year for the boys. 
The maximum effect of elimination is a reduction of .30 of a year 
in the ages of the boys and .40 of a year in the ages of the girls. 

In order to find out what part the age of entrance plays in 
school progress, the percentages of those pupils who made normal 
progress, those who lost one year, and those who lost two years, 
were computed for the ages three and a half to eleven years, for 
grades two to eight. As shown in the following table, 26.2 per 



48 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 

cent of those who entered school at the age of four and a half 
and below made normal progress, 32.2 per cent lost one year, 
and 41.7 per ce'nt lost two years. Of the boys and girls who 
entered at the age of five, 19.7 per cent made normal progress, 
41.8 per cent lost one year, and 38.6 per cent lost two years. Of 
those who entered at the age of five and a half, 27.6 per cent made 
normal progress, 44.7 per cent lost one year, and 27.8 per cent 
lost two years, a decrease of 13.9 per cent in the number who lost 
two years, and an increase of 12.5 per cent in the number who lost 
but one year. Taking the group who entered the first grade 
below the normal age of six, as a whole, 24.5 'per cent made normal 
progress, 39.6 per cent lost one year, and 36 per cent lost two jesus. 

Table XXV. — Comparison of Xoemal Pkogkess, and One and 
Two Year Losses on the Basis of Age of Entrance. 



Ages 


Normal Prog. 


Average 


Lost 1 year 


Average 


Lost 2 years 


Average 


4J & below 


26.2 




32.2 




41.7 




5 


19.7 




41.8 




38.6 




5i 


27.6 


24.5 


44.7 


39.6 


27.8 


36.0 


6 


40.4 




38.9 




20.7 




7 


41.1 


40.8 


36.5 


37.7 


22.4 


21.6 


8 


45.9 




38.5 




15.6 




9 


58.1 




• 41.9 









10 & above 


70.7 


58.2 


19.3 


33.2 


10.0 


8.5 



In the normal group there is very little difference in the 
progress of those who entered at the age of six and those who 
entered at seven. Apj^roximately 41 per cent made normal prog- 
ress, 38 per cent lost one year, and 21 per cent lost two years. 
Comparing the progress of this group with that of the preceding 
shows that 16 per cent more of the normal group made normal 
progress, 2 per cent less lost one year, and 15 per cent less lost 
two years. Although not complete in their analysis, these results 
certainly seem to warrant the exclusion from school of all chil- 
dren below the age of six. It shows that very few boys and girls 
are mentally qualified, to say nothing of their physical qualifica- 
tions, to take up the required work of the first grade below the 
age of six. Such exclusion, resulting in a reduction of the losses 
sustained in the elementary grades, will not only be an economic 
gain, but a real benefit to the children in question. 



AGE OF ENTRANCE. 49 

Table XXVI.- — CoMPAKisoisr of Xokmal Pkogeess, and One 
AND Two Yeae Losses in Groups. 

Groups Normal Prog. Lost 1 year Lost 2 j'ears 

Below noraial age 24.5 39.6 36.0 

J^ormal age 40.7 37.7 21.6 

Above normal age 58.2 33.2 8.5 

Of the group aboA^e normal age, the number who made normal 
progress obviously increases from the ages eight to eleven, and 
the losses of two years decrease, the average of the former being 
58.2 per cent and of the latter 8.5 per cent. The one year losses 
vary but little, the average for this group being 33.2 per cent, 
6.4 per cent less than of the first group. 

Another factor to be considered relative to entrance is the 
number of additions to the different grades other than through 
promotion. Since there is no uniformity of instruction in our 
public school systems, a change in residence from one locality or 
city to another means in most cases a loss of a year or more to 
the child of public school age, and as such it plays an important 
part in retardation. According to the records on the blanks, and 
for an average of two years, only 948 per thousand entered the 
second gTade through promotion. Fifty-two were admitted from 
other schools. In the third grade 55 pupils per thousand had 
completed grades one and two in other schools, and in grade four 
36 per thousand completed the previous grades in other schools. 
The increase in the number admitted to the fifth grade is undoubt- 
edly due to the fact that two of the parochial schools teach only 
the first four grades, which also aj)plies to the increase in the 
eighth grade, so that 41 per thousand may be somewhat higher 
than the average per cent of admission to this grade. 

Table XXVIL — Entrances Per Thousand Other Than 
Through Promotion to Grades Two to Eight. 

Grades Per thousand enrolled 

2 52 

3 55 

4 36 

5 41 

6 28 

7 20 

8 27 259 



60 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 

The admissions to the upper three grades were respectively 
28, 20 and 27 per thousand, a total admission of 259 to these 
seven grades, or an average annual admission per grade from 
other schools of 3Y per thousand. 

Table XXYIII. — Pee Cent of the ISTumbeb in Each Geadb 
Who Weee Admitted Aftee the Fiest Geade. 

Grades Per cent 

2 5.3 

3 10.7 

4 14.3 

5 18.4 

6 21.2 

7 23.2 

8 25.9 

To shovs^ the full effect on each grade of this constant accretion 
from other schools, the above table must be recast on a summation 
basis. As a class goes up through the grades, some pupils fall 
behind and others are added from outside sources, so that even 
by the end of the second year 5.2 per cent of the enrolment had not 
belonged to the class the first year. By the end of the third year 
10.7 per cent of the enrolment were additions, and by the end of 
the fourth year 14.3 per cent. During the fifth year even more 
are added than in the preceding year, the total change being 
18.4 per cent. With the number added in the sixth grade we have 
21.3 per cent who have been admitted to the class since the begin- 
ning of the second year. As shown in the preceding table, 2 per 
cent more are added in the seventh grade, and 2.7 per cent in the 
eighth, making a total increase in the enrolment from the first 
grade of 25.9 per cent. 

It was impossible with the data on hand to compute accurately 
the amount of loss sustained through change in residence. But 
a fair approximation to it can be obtained by computing on the 
one hand the average age for each grade of those who received all 
their instruction in the Reading public schools, and on the other 
the average age of those who took the work of one or more grades 
in another school. 

In the following table are shown the average ages of these 
two groups for grades five, six, seven, and eight. 



AGE OF ENTRANCE. 51 

Table XXIX. — Average Ages of Those AVho Attended only 
THE Heading Public Schools, and of Those Who 

FORMERLY COMPLETED One OR MoRE YeARS 

IN Another School. 





Reading schools only 


One or i 


xiore years in another school 


Gradea 


Male 


Female Average 


Male 


Female 


Average 


5 


11.56 


11.26 11.41 


12.35 


12.06 


12.21 


6 


12.22 


11.92 12.07 


12.70 


12.50 


12.60 


Y 


12.93 


12.72 12.83 


13.17 


13.12 


13.15 


8 


13.68 


13.50 13.59 


13.98 


13.89 


13.94 



With an average difference of .80 of a year between the ages 
of the two groups in the fifth grade, .53 of a year in the sixth, .32 
of a year in the seventh, and .35 of a year in the eighth grade, the 
retarding effect of a change in residence becomes very evident. 

Computing the total losses thus sustained by multiplying the 
average loss per child by the number in each of the above five 
grades who entered from other schools, then conveiting these 
years into school months, we obtain the following table: 

Table XXX. — Loss Sustained by Pupils in Grades Five, 
Six, Seven, and Eight through Change in Residence. 



Grades 


Number from 

other schools 

M. F. 


Total number of 
months lost 
M. F. 


Number of months 

lost through change 

M. F. 


Per cent of total loss 
M. F. Av. 


5 


170 


120 


7,665 


4,915 


1333 


960 


17.4 


19.5 


18.4 


6 


146 


139 


3,720 


2,630 


701 


806 


18.8 


30.6 


24.7 


7 


63 


88 


2,025 


2,050 


151 


352 


7.5 


17.2 


12.4 


8 


51 


59 


1,065 


1,190 


153 


230 


14.4 


19.3 


16.9 


Totals 


430 


406 


14,475 


10,785 


2338 


2348 


16.2 


21.8 


19.0 



On the blanks 170 male and 120 female pupils of the fifth 
grade were recorded as having completed one or more years in 
another school. Since the boys on the average are .79 of a year 
older than those of their class who attended only the Reading 
public schools, and the girls .80 of a year, the total loss thus 
sustained by the boys is 1333 months and by the girls 960 months. 
The total number of months lost by the boys of this grade is 
7665, and by the girls 4915 months. The boys therefore lost 
17.4 per cent of the total loss through changes in the schools 
attended, and the girls 19.5 per cent. On this same basis the 
amount of loss sustained by the boys of the sixth grade was 18.8 
per cent of the total and by the girls 30.6 per cent. 



52 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 

Since the computations for the boys in the seventh grade 
had to be based upon a number considerably less than the actual 
male enrolment in this grade, the 7.5 per cent given in the table 
is no doubt considerably less than the actual per cent of loss 
sustained through change of schools. The loss similarly incurred 
by the girls of this grade was 17.2 per cent of the total, and in the 
eighth grade they were respectively 14.4 per cent and 19.3 per 
cent of the total. 

In the last three grades especially, the per cent of the loss 
sustained by the girls through change of schools is considerably 
greater than for the boys, and on the average 5.6 per cent greater. 
This seems to be too great a disparity, and is evidence of the need 
of further research along this line. If it be true that approxi- 
mately 20 per cent of the total losses by the pupils enrolled in 
grades five to eight are due to change of residence, or a change 
from private to public school, the losses thus sustained demand 
due consideration in a study of the causes of retardation. And 
before fixing the responsibility, such factors as non-attendance 
and late entrance must likewise be considered. 



V. 

Elimination. 

Elimination is closely allied to retardation. In the perusal 
of school records of enrolment it is the first factor that claims 
our attention. When we notice that for every one hundred 
enrolled in the first grade there are only 27 in the eighth grade, 
its presence and effectiveness become still more evident. 

On the average, during the years 1903-1908, the number 
enrolled in the second grade for the month of October was 15.9 
per cent less than in the first grade. The numbers enrolled in 
grades, two, three, and four were on the average nearly equal. 
From grade four to five the diminution began to be more pro- 
nounced, having been on the average 8.7 per cent d'iting these 
six years. But the most decided change was from the fifth to the 
eighth grade, with an average reduction of 24.5, 31, and 32.1 
per cent. 

During the same years the per cent of decrease from grade 
one to two, grade one to three, and so on, based upon the average 
enrolment in each grade for these years, is showu in the follow- 
ing table : 

Table XXXI. — Per Cent of Decrease throughout the 

Eight Elementary Grades, Based upon the 

Enrolment in the First Grade 

Grades Male 

First to second 18.5 

' " " third 19.6 

■ " " fourth 17.9 

" " fifth 27.0 

" " sixth 48.6 

" " seventh 65.9 

" " eighth 77.1 

The marked decrease from the first to the second, grade as 
compared with the decrease from the first to the third and the 
first to the fourth, is due to the large per cent of repeaters in the 
first grade. If the number who lose a half year be deducted, the 
enrolment in the first four grades will be approximately equal. 

(53) 



Female 


Average 


13.2 


15.9 


12.3 


16.4 


15.0 


16.4 


22.7 


24.8 


39.2 


43.9 


56.4 


61.1 


70.1 


73.6 



54 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 

But after the fourth grade the number eliminated increases 
rapidly until in the eighth there are only 23 boys and 30 girls 
left out of every one hundred boys and one hundred girls enrolled 
in the first grade. 

As shown in this table, the decrease in the number of boys 
from the fourth to the fifth grade is greater than in the number 
of girls. This is not a contradiction of the fact stated in the 
section on retardation, that more of the girls leave the fourth grade 
than of the boys. This has been true during the last two years 
(1907 and 1908). The reason for this apparent contradiction 
is that more of the girls were immediately benefited by the new 
course of study. During the last two years the average decrease 
in the number of girls from the first to the fifth grade was 26.5 
per cent and in the number of boys only 21.1 per cent. The 
18.4 per cent of the number of girls who left in the fourth grade 
to go to work as compared with the 10.4 per cent of the number 
of boys, also corroborates the fact that more girls than boys drop 
out of school from the fourth to the fifth grade. 

Table XXXII. — Average Deceease ijst the Octobek Enrol- 
ment IN 1907 AND 1908. 

Grades Male Female Average 

Mrst to second 17.0 

" " third 18.9 

" '' fourth 15.1 

" " fifth 21.1 

'' " sixth 47.3 

" " seventh 66.9 

" " eighth 77.1 

On account of the changes made, the fluctuations in the en- 
rolment of the diff.erent grades previous to 1906 were more or less 
abnormal. It therefore seems advisable to compare with the 
above figures the average decrease and elimination throughout the 
grades during the last two years. Comparing this table with the 
preceding, shows that during the last two years the apparent 
elimination, or in other words the number of repeaters in the 
first five grades, has decreased 5.7 per cent, and the elimination in 
grades six, seven, and eight has increased 3.5 per cent. This is 
another evidence of the marked and constant improvement in the 
elementary grades. It means that during the last two years the 
number of repeaters has been diminished nearly 6 per cent, in 
the lower grades, and that a larger per cent reaches grades five and 
six, thus temporarily increasing the per cent of elimination in 



14.1 


15.6 


12.1 


15.5 


10.7 


12.9 


26.5 


23.8 


42.4 


44.9 


58.3 


62.6 


72.1 


74.6 



ELIMINATION. 55 

grades seven and eight. The number eliminated from the eighth 
grade to the first year of the high school has also increased for 
the boys from 4.6 per cent in the fall of 1906 to 14.1 per cent 
in 1907, and to 15.8 per cent in 1908. The reason for this is 
that the opening of the new Boys' High School was an incentive 
strong enough to hold nearly all the boys who completed the 
eighth grade that year. For the girls the elimination for the 
same years was 22.2, 22.3, and 12.9 per cent respectively, a 
decided improvement for the last year. 

The additions that are constantly made are thus more than 
balanced by the withdrawals, especially during the second term. 
Unfortunately the records were not complete enough to make 
possible a detailed analysis of the causes of leaving. Out of 993 
cases of leaving, 30 per cent furnished no information with regard 
to the causes. It is therefore impossible to compute accurately 
the per cent that go to work, or leave the city, or enter the 
parochial schools, or drop out for other reasons. Classifying the 
withdrawals under these four heads, and including the lew deaths 
under the miscellaneous, we find that 30.6 per cent left to go to 
work, 17.4 per cent left the city, and 21.3 per cent went to the 
parochial schools. The remaining 30.4 per cent must be classed 
under miscellaneous. 

Table XXXIII. — Causes and Percentages of Withdraw als. 

Went to parochial 
Went to work Left the city school Miscellaneous 

Boys 30.7 17.0 20.8 31.3 

Girls 30.5 17.8 21.8 29.7 



Average 30.6 17.4 21.3 30.4 

Disregarding the causes and classifying them according to 
grade, we obtain the following table: 

Table XXXIV. — Percentages of Withdrawals in Each 

Grade. 

12 34 5678 

Boys 17.6 15.6 16.2 13.0 11.2 13.4 7.2 4.6 

Girls 14.6 16.0 13.0 15.6 12.4 10.6 9.0 8.2 

Average 16.1 15.8 14.6 14.3 11.8 12.0 8.1 6.4 

Judging from these 993 cases of withdrawals, it would seem 
that approximately 16.0 per cent leave in the first two grades, 
14.5 per cent in grades three and four, 12 per cent in grades five 
and six, 8 per cent in the seventh, and 6 per cent in the eighth. 



56 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF BETARDATION. 

Of more direct interest is the grade distribution in four 
groups based upon the causes of leaving just mentioned. ISTone 
of those who went to work left in the first grade. Of the boys 
of this group, 2.6 per cent left in the second grade, and .6 per cent 
of the girls. More than a tenth of the boys left in the third grade, 
and only 2.6 per cent of the girls. Another tenth of the boys left 
in the fourth grade and 18.4 per cent of the girls, an increase of 
15.8 per cent over the third. Adding to these the number leaving 
in the fifth grade, we have 43.0 per cent of the boys who do not 
get beyond the fifth grade, and 46.6 per cent of the girls. Exactly 
one-fourth of the girls of this group left in the fifth grade and 

Table XXXV. — Gkade Disteibtjtion of the Withdrawals 
ON THE Basis of Cause of Leaving. 

Went to parochial 



Went to work 
Grade M. F. Av. 

10 


Left city 
M. F. 

35.2 31.4 


Av. 

33.3 


M. 

23.0 


school 
F. 

25.9 


Av. 

24.4 


Misc 
M. 

21.7 


lellaneous 
F. Av. 

11.4 16.5 


2 2.6 .6 


1.6 


27.0 


16.8 


21.9 


27.8 


35.1 


31.4 


14.7 


17.5 16.1 


3 11.1 2.6 


6.9 


14.2 


16.8 


15.5 


30.7 


27.7 


29.2 


15.3 


10.8 13.0 


4 10.4 18.4 


14.4 


12.9 


10.1 


11.5 


13.4 


8.3 


10.9 


15.3 


21.6 18.4 


5 18.9 25.0 


22.0 


4.7 


11.2 


7.9 


4.8 


.9 


2.9 


10.8 


8.7 9.8 


6 32.0 20.3 


26.2 


3.5 


6.7 


5.1 











9.6 


10.8 10.2 


7 15.6 17.7 


16.7 





4.4 


2.2 











7.6 


9.5 8.6 


8 9.1 15.1 


12.1 


2.3 


2.2 


2.3 





1.8 


.9 


4.4 


9.5 6.9 



another one-fifth in the sixth. The largest number eliminated of 
this group was 32 per cent (boys) in the sixth grade. Three and 
six-tenths per cent more girls than boys were eliminated during 
the first five grades. But as previously said, more of the girls 
continue to grades six, seven and eight, so that by the end of 
the sixth grade exactly three-fourths of the boys of this group 
have been eliminated and only 66.9 per cent of the girls. In the 
seventh grade 15.6 per cent more of the boys and 17.7 per cent 
more of the girls are eliminated, a total of 90.6 per cent of the 
boys and 84.6 per cent of the girls, for the first seven grades, 
leaving approximately 9 per cent of the boys and 15 per cent 
of the girls who continued to the eighth grade. 

The records of 134 boys and 147 girls who went to work, 
show that only 20 per cent of the former and 24 per cent of the 
latter made normal progress. Two boys and one girl gained one 
year and two girls a year and a half. The remaining 112 boys 
lost from one-half to five years and the 120 girls from one-half 
to four and a half years. Four boys and 9 girls lost one term, 
and 38 boys and 32 girls two terms. Six boys and 11 girls lost 
three terms, and 23 boys and 40 girls four terms. Of the remain- 



ELIMINATION, 



57 



ing 41 boys and 28 girls, 9 boys and 3 girls lost five terms, and 
23 boys and 18 girls six terms. Seven boys and six girls lost 
eight terms, one girl nine terms, and two boys ten terms, or 
five years. Expressed in percentages, 47.8 per cent of tbe boys 
and 46.3 per cent of the girls lost two years and over, and 23.9 
per cent of the boys and 17.1 per cent of the girls lost three 
years and over. 

Of those who left the city, by far the largest nnmber left 
in the first grade, 35.2 per cent of the boys and 31.4 per cent of 
the girls. Taken as a whole the disparity between boys and girls 
is considerably less in this group. The greatest difference is in 
the second grade, where 27.0 per cent of the boys of this gronp 
and only 16.8 per cent of the girls left the city. On the average 
there is an uninterrnpted decrease from the first to the seventh 
grade in the number leaving the city. 

Of the number who go to the parochial school, the disparity 
between the boys and girls is even less than in the preceding 
group, the greatest difference being in the second grade, where 
27.8 per cent of the boys of this group and 35 per cent of the 
girls left the public schools. On the average 29.2 per cent left 
in the third grade, 10,9 per cent in the fourth, and 2.9 per cent 
in the fifth. On account of the uncertainty, it is obvious that 
very little significance can be attached to the miscellaneous group. 

In diagrams 12 and 13 is sho\^T.i the approximate relation 
between retardation and elimination, the former on the basis of 
the number in each grade and the latter on the basis of age. In 
each diagram the dotted line represents the number of normal 
age pupils. 



000 

1800 

1600 

1400 

1200 

1000 

800 

600 

400 

200 



1 234 5 6 78 
Diagram 12. Relation of retardation and 
elimination on basis of number in eachi 
grade. 



5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 
Diagram 13. Relation of retardation and elimination in 
elementary grades on basis of age. 



VI. 

Attendance. 

According to the common school laws of Pennsylvania each 
school board is authorized to fix the compulsory standard of attend- 
ance for the ensuing year at its June meeting, provided such 
standard is not below 70 per cent of the number of days in the 
school year of the said district. This means that every child 
between the ages of eight and fourteen must attend at least one 
hundred and forty days in a school year of ten months, unless 
excused by the school board "upon the presentation of satisfac- 
tory evidence showing that such child is prevented from attend- 
ance upon school or application to study by mental, physical, or 
other urgent reasons." 

There are perhaps no data in the school records and reports 
that are more obscure and meaningless than the percentages of 
attendance. In many cases they are analogous to the unknown 
quantity x in algebra, whose real value must first be computed 
to make it concrete and definite. In one report 98 per cent of 
attendance may be in reality the same as 89 per cent in another 
report. In the one case all pupils with an absence of two, three, 
four, or more successive days are temporarily dropped from the 
roll, at least in the computation of the per cent of attendance, 
while in the other they are kept on the roll until the end of the 
month or until they shall have left school permanently. Such 
diverse methods ought not to prevail in the same country, and 
much less in the same state. They are therefore problems to be 
considered by our state educational associations. It is obvious 
that as long as the school reports obscure the existing conditions, 
thus keeping the community in ignorance, we cannot expect con- 
certed action in effecting a change in the remediable causes pro- 
ducing such conditions. 

Under normal conditions normal progress means regular 'A 
attendance, irregular attendance means retardation, and retarda- -J 
tion means early elimination. It is therefore essential to consider 
in detail the factor of attendance in its relation to these elements. 
When we consider that for a possible attendance of 1,308,255 days 
by the 6709 boys and girls included in the following discussions, 
we have only an actual attendance of 1,161,759 days, a loss of 

(58) 



ATTENDANCE. 



59 



146,496 days or more than 11 per cent, the importance of the 
factor of attendance in its relation to school progress becomes 
clearly evident. 

Of these 6709 boys and girls, 4889 belonged to the promoted 
class for 1907-1908 and 1820 to the non-promoted. Classified 
according to grade they are as follows: 



Table XXXVI. — Classification by Grades of 4889 Pupils 
Promoted and 1820 not Promoted, 



Grades 
1 


M. 

309 


Promoted 
F. 

375 


Total 

684 


M. 

241 


Non-promoted 
F. 

185 


Total 

426 


2 


369 


370 


739 


204 


124 


328 


3 


364 


461 


825 


125 


121 


246 


4 


447 


418 


865 


146 


148 


294 


6 


403 


344 


747 


191 


128 


319 


6 


259 


343 


602 


77 


55 


132 


7 


191 


236 


427 


27 


26 


•53 


8 








11 


11 


22 


tals 


2352 


2547 


4889 


1022 


798 


1820 



The relative attendance of these two groups is shown in the 
following table in periods of ten days, with lines dividing the table 
into periods of one-fourth the number of days in a ten months' 
term. 



Table XXXVIII. — Attendance of Promoted and ISTon-pro- 

MOTED Pupils on the Basis of a Thousand, and 

Percentages in Groups of One-fourth. 

Days Promoted Per cent Non -promoted Per cent 

190 to 200 284 162 

180 " 190 289 188 

170 " 180 169 154 

160 " 170 107 113 

150 " 160 ■ 57 90.6 96 71.3 

140 to 150 41 • 72 

130 " 140 25 61 

120 " 130 12 88 

110 " 120 7 27 

100 " 110 4 8.9 28 22.6 



Promoted 


Per cent 


Non-promoted 


Per cent 


1 




20 




1 




12 




1 




11 




1 




6 






.4 


4 


5.3 


1 




2 
1 
4 






.1 


1 


.8 



60 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 

Table XXXVIII (Continued). 
Days 

90 to 100 

80 " 90 

70 " 80 

60 " YO 

50 " 60 

40 to 50 

30 " 40 

20 " 30 

10 '' 20 

1000 100.0 1000 100.0 

Since the relation between the two groups in this table is 
based upon the attendance of pupils who belonged the entire 
year, entering not later than October, the reason for which is 
given later, the percentages of attendance for three-fourths and 
less of the time for both groups represent the minimum per- 
centages. They would obviously be increased if the attendance 
of the total enrolment were taken, especially for the non-pro- 
moted group. Even on this minimum basis the effect of irreg- 
ular or non-attendance as a factor causing retardation is dis- 
tinctly shown. 

Grouping them on the basis of fourths of the number of 
days, we obtain the following table from the foregoing. 

Table XXXVIII. — Percentages of Attendance on tpie 
Basis of Fourths of the J^umbek of Days. 

Days attended Promoted Non-promoted Difference 

More than three-fourths 90.6 71.3 19.8 

One-half to three-fourths 8.9 22.6 13.7 

One-fourth to one-half .4 5.3 4.9 

Less than one-fourth .1 .8 .7 



100.0 100.0 38.6 

As shown in the table, 19.3 per cent more of the promoted 
group attended more than three-fourths the number of days taught ; 
13.7 per cent more of the non-promoted group attended only from 
one-half to three-fourths the time; and 5.6 per cent more attended 
less than half the time, the total difference being 38.6 per cent. 



ATTENDANCE. 



61 



In diagram 14 is sho^vn the relative attendance of both the 
promoted and the non-promoted group. The broken bars represent 
the per cent of the non-promoted who attended less than the num- 
ber of days recorded at the head of the column and the dotted 
bars the per cent of the promoted group. 



00 


10 


30 


50 70 90 110 130 


150 


170 


190 


96 












90 












84 












78 












72 












66 








1 — 




60 








1 
1 




54 








1 




48 








r*-^ 






42 


1 




36 






r-i 
1 1 






30 






r-V'. 


1 

t 






24 




18 






n-l ' ' 








12 






' — 












6 


1 1 1 \ 








■ -r-— r-r f 1 ; 1 1 





Diagram 14. Attendance of 1856 pupils not pronaoted, and 4889 pupils promoted. 
White ground represents attendance, broken bars the absences of the former, 
and solid bars the absences of the latter. 



The actual number of days taught in 1907-1908 was 195. 
In order to measure more accurately the number of pupils who 
attended 70 per cent of the time, thus living up to the state 
requirements, the 195 days are divided into groups of thirty 
days, on the basis of two hundred, with the exception of 49 
days and below, which are comparatively few in number and 
are therefore placed in one grouj). In obtaining the possible 
number of days, the 195 days taught were used, and to get 
the actual number of days attended, the number who attended 
190 days and over was multiplied by 193 days as an average; 
the number who attended from 180 to 190 days by 185 days as an 
average ; the number who attended from 170 to 180 by 175 days 
as an average, etc. Although this will not give the exact number 



62 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 

of days attended, the number obtained is a close approximation 
to it and sufficiently accurate for our purpose. 

For the promoted group it was impossible to obtain from 
the blanks the attendance for the eighth grade, so that the totals 
are those of the first seven grades only. For the non-promoted 
group as shown in the table, the eight elementary grades are 
Included. 

Classifying the promoted group in divisions of thirty days 
as above discussed, and on the basis of a hundred, we obtain table 
XXXIX. The dotted line marks the division between those who 
attended the legally required number of days, and those who 
did not. 

Table XXXIX. — Percentages of Attendance of the Pro- 
moted Pupils in Groups of Thirty Days. 

Grades 
Days attended 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Av. total 

170 and over 56. 68.8 74.9 77.9 79.7 83.6 85. 74.4 
140 to 170 34.7 25.1 19.4 17.1 17.0 14.8 13.3 20.5 

110 to 140 8.3 4.7 4.6 4.3 3.1 1.7 1.5 4.3 

80 " 110 1.0 1.4 1.2 .5 .3 .3 .7 

50 " 80 .1 .2 • .05 

49 and less .1 -05 

As indicated by this table, there is no minimum limit to the 
number of days of attendance necessary for promotion, nor should 
there be. In this connection it is essential to discriminate between 
irregular attendance and prolonged absence. The former is un- 
doubtedly most detrimental both to scholarship and progress, and 
is in many cases at the root of indifference to things pertaining 
to school. In regard to the banefulness of prolonged absences, 
much depends upon the time of the year when such absences occur. 
An absence of sixty days at the opening of school is in many cases 
not as harmful as an absence of thirty days at the end of the year. 
Unfortunately the data of attendance on the blanks were not suffi- 
ciently complete to make possible an analysis of all the factors that 
should be considered in a full discussion of the subject. In very 
few cases was it possible to tell from the blanks whether or not a 
prolonged absence as indicated by the vacant spaces was a real 



ATTENDANCE. 63 

absence, or was only a case of transfer, in which case the record of 
attendance would be in another school. We were therefore com- 
pelled to include in this discussion the attendance of only such 
pupils as were admitted not later than October and remained in 
the same school for the entire year. The result of this is that the 
percentages of attendance obtained in the computation of these 
tables are undoubtedly better than the real total attendance of the 
pupils enrolled would show. 

As shown in the above table, 5 per cent of the promoted group 
attended less than YO per cent of the number of days taught. 
These were for the most part from twelve to fourteen years of age 
and greatly retarded. In many cases it was a question of promo- 
tion as an incentive to continuing the pupil's school life, and of 
giving the boy or girl an extensive rather than intensive knowl- 
edge of the elementary subjects, a wise provision for exceptional 
cases. On the average out of every one hundred of the promoted 
class, seventy-five attended one hundred and seventy^days and 
over, twenty attended from 140 to 170 days, four from 110 to 
140 days, and one attended less than eighty days. 

Table XL. — Percentages of Attendance of IsTon-pkomoted 
BupiLs IN Groups of Thirty Days. 

Grades At. 

Days attended 12345678 total 

170 and over 26.6 52.1 52.0 60.4 56.9 63.4 60.4 63.7 54.6 
140 to 170 36.7 27.4 24.4 26.0 25.1 27.8 26.4 27.3 27.6 

110 to 140 18.7 11.7 15.9 9.1 10.6 5.4 11.4 4.6 10.9 

80 '' 110 12.8 6.2 4.5 3.4 4.7 1.9 4.2 

50 " 80 4.0 2.3 2.5 .3 2.3 1.2 1.9 4.5 2.4 

49 and less 1.3 .3 .8 .9 .4 .6 .5 

Of the non-promoted group the percentages of attendance are 
similarly recorded in the foregoing table. Eighteen per cent of 
this group attended less than 70 per cent of the time, almost four 
times as many as of the promoted group, leaving only 82 per 
cent who attended 140 days and over as compared with 95 per 
cent of the preceding group. Out of every hundred of the non- 
promoted group, approximately 55 attended more than 170 days, 
27 attended from 140 to 170 days, and 18 attended less than the 
legally required 140 days. 



64 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 

Lack of attendance is obviously greatest in the lower grades. 
In the following table the relative attendance of the two groups 
is shown on the basis of 70 per cent of the time and over, and less 
than TO per cent of the time, for the first seven grades. 

Table XLI. — Pebcejsttages of Attendance of the Pbomoted 

AND ISTON-PEOMOTED PUPILS ON THE BaSIS OF 70 PeR 

Cent of the JSTumber of Days. 

Grades Average 

70 per cent and over 12 3 4 5 6 7 

Promoted 90.6 93.8 94.3 95.0 96.7 98.4 98.4 94.9 

E"on-promoted 63.3 79.5 76.4 86.4 82.0 91.2 86.8 81.2 

Less than 70 per cent 

Promoted 9.5 6.1 5.8 5.0 3.4 1.7 1.8 5.1 

:^ron-promoted 36.8 20.7 23.7 13.7 18.0 9.1 13.3 18.6 

With an average difference of 13.7 per cent between the 
attendance of the promoted group and the non-promoted, of those 
who attended 70 per cent of the time and over, it is evident that 
lack of attendance as a cause of retardation is a very important 
factor. In grade one the difference between the two groups 
reaches the high per cent of 27.3. In the second &nd fifth grades 
the difference in attendance between the two groups is approxi- 
mately 14.5 per cent, and increases to almost 18 per cent in the 
third grade. The least differences in the attendance are in the 
fourth and sixth grades, — 8.6 per cent for the former and 7.2 
per cent for the latter. 

On account of the low attendance of a considerable number 
of the promoted class, it is impossible to compute the number 
who failed in promotion because of irregular attendance or non- 
attendance. Assuming an attendance of 70 per cent to be essential 
for promotion under normal conditions, and then deducting the per- 
centages of the promoted in each grade with an attendance less than 
70 per cent of the time, from the non-promoted who attended less 
than 70 per cent of the time, a fairly close approximation to it can 
be obtained. As shown in the following table, we have 140 for 
the first grade, out of a total of 155 who attended less than 70 
per cent of the time, or 32.9 per cent of the total number not 
promoted failed through lack of attendance. 



ATTENDANCE. 65 



Table 


XLII.- 


—Effect of 


E'ON 


-ATTENDANCE 


AS 


A Cause of 






^ON- 


■PEOMOTIO]Sr. 






Grades 


No. 
; 70 


attending less than 
per cent of time 


No. 


not promoted through 
lack of attendance 


Per cent not pro- 
moted through 
lack of attendance 


1 




155 




140 




32.9 


2 




65 




61 




18.6 


3 




58 




55 




22.3 


4 




46 




44 




13.4 


5 




53 




51 




16.0 


6 




12 




12 




9.1 


r 




r 




7 




13.2 



Totals 396 370 20.1 

On the same basis of the 65 in the second grade who attended 
less than 70 per cent of the time and failed in promotion, 61 
failed because of lack of attendance, or 18.6 per cent o:fcthe total 
number not promoted in this grade. In the third grade 22.3 per 
cent failed because of, lack of attendance. In grades four and 
seven approximately 13 per cent, and in grade five 16 per cent 
failed because of non-attendance. The minimum of 9.1 per cent 
is reached in the sixth grade. Taken as a whole, of the 390 boys 
and girls who attended less than 70 per cent of the time and 
failed in promotion, 370 or 20 per cent or one-fifth of the non- 
promoted group failed because of lack of attendance. 

From the foregoing discussion it is obvious that this is not 
a correct measure of irregular or non-attendance as a factor caus- 
ing non-promotion. It is safe to say, however, that 20 per cent 
represents at least the minimum number who fail in promotion 
because of lack of attendance. ISTo doubt a considerable number 
of the non-promoted group who attended only from 140 to 170 
days must be added to this number, since the per cent of the 
non-promoted is 7 per cent higher than of the promoted. It is also 
true, however, that in this group non-attendance as a factor causing 
non-promotion becomes a concomitant factor with mental dul- 
ness, lack of application, poor teaching, or too high a standard, 
and a few minor factors, so that its exact measure cannot be 
determined in this connection. 

The attendance of boys and girls of the promoted class differs 
very little. The total difference in the first seven grades is only 
.4 per cent, both attending approximately 91 per cent of the 
time. The actual losses sustained in each of these seven grades 
are shown in the follovdng table: 



6Q EXTENT AND CAUSE8 OF RETARDATION. 

Table XLIII. — Total Ij^umbek of Days Lost pee Thousand 
BY Pupils of the Promoted Gkoup in the Fiest Seven 

Grades. 

Grades Days lost per thoijsand 

1 135 

2 .94 

3 95 

4 96 

5 79 

6 69 

7 61 

Total 92 

Of the non-promoted class there is a decided difference in 
some of the grades, between the attendance of male and female. 
The girls of the first grade lost 54 days more per thousand than 
the boys, and yet only 28 per cent of the girls spent two years 
and over in this grade, as compared with 34 per cent of the 
boys. Approximately the same is true of the third grade in 
which the loss of days per thousand is 49 more for the girls, 
although 1.4 per cent more boys spent two years and over in the 
grade. The greatest difference is in the eighth grade, in which 
the girls missed 75 days more per thousand than the boys. Only 
in grades two and six did the boys lose more days than the girls, 
19 days in the former and 10 days in the latter. 

Table XLIV. — Total JSTumbek of Days Lost pee Thousand 

BY THE ISTON-PEOMOTED GrOUP. 



Grades 


Male 


Female 


Averag 


1 


230 


284 


257 


2 


158 


139 


149 


3 


151 


200 


176 


4 


134 


149 


142 


5 


169 


194 


182 


6 


133 


123 


128 


Y 


114 


158 


136 


8 


8T 


162 


125 



Average 169 195 182 

Taking the attendance of the eight elementary grades of the 
non-promoted group as a whole, the loss per thousand was 169 



ATTENDANCE. 67 

for the boys and 195 for the girls, a difference of 26 days, 
although 2.1 per cent more of the boys spent two years and over 
in the same grade. The average total loss for this group was 
182 days per thousand, almost twice as much as for the pro- 
moted group. Subtracting the losses in days of the promoted 
group from the non-promoted, and stating them in order from the 
first to the seventh grade, we have respectively 122, 55, 85, 46, 
103, 59, and 75 days, a total average difference of 78 days per 
thousand. 

Contrary to expectation, orphanage does not seem to be a 
direct cause for irregular attendance or non-attendance. The 
average attendance of 354 orphan boys was 171 days and of 364 
orphan girls 170 days. The average attendance of the promoted 
boys was 177 days and of the non-promoted 162 days, a general 
average of 169.5 days. Of the promoted girls the average attend- 
ance was 176 days and of the non-promoted 157 days, a general 
average of 166.5 days. 

On the basis of $1.54 a month per child, the rafll given for 
February, 1906, the amount of money spent during 1907-1908 
for the education of the 6709 boys and girls included in the 
above discussion was $103,318.80. Of this amount $75,290.60 
was spent on the 4889 boys and girls who belonged to the pro- 
moted group and $28,028.00 on the 1820 of the non-promoted 
group. 

If we assume that the average degree of mental development 
per day of those who are instructed, is commensurate with the 
amount of money provided by the Board of Education for that 
purpose, we have also to assume a synchronous loss for all pupils 
not attending, at least considered from the standpoint of the child. 
Of course it is evident that in many cases the number of absences 
means a proportionate increase in the amount of individual atten- 
tion per child of those present, but for the absent ones they are 
losses nevertheless. 

The economic loss thus incurred by the promoted group who 
missed 9.2 per cent of the time is $6,926.73, and of the non- 
promoted group who missed 18.2 per cent of the time $5,101.09, 
a total loss of $12,238.81. Keduced to the average loss per child, 
we have $1.42 for the promoted group and $2.81 for the non- 
promoted, just about twice as much as for the preceding gi-oup. 



YII. 

Summary. 

The historical discussion of the condition of the Reading 
public schools from 1903 to 1908 based upon the data of enrol- 
ment, preceding the school census, showed these years to be the 
formative period of a vastly better and more "up-to-date" system 
of instruction. They represent the "working out" period of the 
new system, during which new conditions were constantly arising 
to demand the closest kind of supervision. On account of the 
regrading moreover, the continuous, successive, upward increases 
in the enrolment from the lower to the upper grades were abnor- 
malities which more or less obscured the real merits and short- 
comings of the new system, in augmenting the per cent of reten- 
tion to the upper grades. 

In view of these unstable conditions it may be premature to 
comment on the methods of teaching or the system now in vogue. 
Nevertheless, the following facts were observed: — 

1. The shortcomings of the various data of enrolment are 
to be noted and the discrepancies which arise from them when 
not duly considered. 

2. The February enrolment is the highest for the first four 
grades. Erom then on to June there is a total decrease of 19.6 
per cent. For these same grades the June enrolment is 13.3 per 
cent less than the October enrolment. 

3. For the upj^er three grades there is a continuous, total 
average decrease from September to June of 20.6 per cent, the 
largest monthly eliminations being for the months of December 
and March. 

4. The total enrolment in the elementary grades, includ- 
ing both public and parochial schools, has decreased on the aver- 
age 123 per year during the last three years (1905 to 1908). 

5. Since 1903 there has been a continuous, successive, up- 
ward increase in the enrolment from the lower to the upper 
grades. 

6. The enrolment in the boys' high school has increased 
55.4 per cent since 1903, and the girls' high school 27 per cent. 

Y. The boys lost more time in the lower grades than the 
girls; 8.1 per cent more in the elementary grades are retarded, 

(68) 



SUMMARY. 69 

6.1 per cent less are of normal age, and 2 per cent less are below 
normal. 

8. The difference between the October enrolment and the 
average yearly enrolment from 1903 to 1907 increased -uninter- 
ruptedly from a difference of only .7 per cent in 1903 to 6.6 per 
cent in 1907. 

9. The pupils enrolled at the opening of the Polish parochial 
school in 1905 were largely drawn from sources other than the 
public schools, but those of St. Joseph's parochial school were 
drawn from the public schools. 

10. Distributed on the basis of age, the number of pupils 
increases to the twelve year olds, but is rather uniform from eight 
to twelve. On the basis of the number of twelve year olds, 16 per 
cent are eliminated at thirteen years of age and 32 per cent at 
fourteen. Approximately 215 leave at the age of thirteen and 
430 at the age of fourteen. 

11. The maximum retardation for the girls is in the fourth 
grade and for the boys in the fifth grade, in which on the aver- 
age 44 per cent are retarded. Taking the eight elementary grades 
as a whole, 63.5 per cent are of normal age, 30.4 per cent above 
normal, and 6.2 per cent below normal. 

12. The perceptible elimination among the girls begins in 
the fifth grade and among the boys in the sixth grade. 

13. On the basis of age the average decrease in the per cent 
of normal age from the six to the fourteen year olds is 7.5 per 
cent and the average increase in the group above normal age from 
eight to fourteen is 8.7 per cent. 

14. On the average 1.7 per cent of the pupils enrolled in 
the elementary grades in 1907-1908, completed the grade in a 
half year, 72.3 per cent in the allotted time of one year, 7.4 per 
cent in a year and a half, and 18.6 per cent spent two years and 
over in the grade. 

15. The course of study or method of teaching in the sec- 
ond grade is best adapted for the progress of the average child. 
Twenty per cent more than in the first grade completed it in 
one year, 8.3 per cent more than in the third, 7 per cent more 
than in the fourth, and .4 per cent more than in the fifth. 

16. On the average 1.6 per cent more of the girls in the 
elementary grades made normal progress, and 2.1 per cent less 
spent two years and over in the same grade. 

17. Five and eight-tenths per cent of the pupils enrolled 
in the elementary grades gained time, 34,7 per cent made normal 



70 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 

progress, and 59.5 per cent lost time, of whom 6.8 per cent or 
331 boys and 224 girls lost three years and over, and T8 boys 
iind 53 girls, or 1.8 per cent, four years and over. 

18. At $6.00 per term for each child, the total amount 
gained is $4326 and the amount spent on repetition $88,674. The 
average cost per boy was $45.74 and per girl $45.02. 

19. The January enrolment for the first term and the June 
enrolment for the second term form the fairest bases for comput- 
ing the percentages of promotion. 

20. The midyear system of promotion lacks as yet full 
installation. Only 7.6 per cent were promoted to a higher grade 
at the end of the first term and 16.4 per cent to a higher class as 
over against 65.1 per cent to a higher grade and 8.3 per cent to a 
higher class at the end of the second term. 

21. The fact that midyear promotions are made only in the 
first five grades tends toward congestion in grades four and five 
and is responsible for a considerable number of half year losses. 

22. Up to 1907-1908, entrances of beginners were not con- 
fined to the first month or two of each term, as is advisably done 
now. 

23. Of those who entered the first grade in February, 1907 
and 1908, only one in eight completed the grade in one year, due 
to lack of full installation of midyear promotions. 

24. Less than half of the teachers in grades two and three 
promoted in February, 1908, and approximately two-thirds of the 
girls and three-fourths of the boys who entered the fifth grade in 
February, 1908, lost the half year. 

25. The pupils below normal age entering the first grade 
have been reduced more than ten per cent during the last eight 
years. 

26. During this- same time the normal age group has 
increased ten per cent. 

27. The pupils who spent two years and over in the same 
grade were on the average six-tenths of a year younger than those 
who completed the grade in a half year. 

28. The variations in the rate of increase above the normal 
age for the group who spent two years and over in the same grade, 
indicate differences in the adaptation of the course of study or 
method of teaching, to the average mental status of the pupils 
enrolled. 

29. The average age of entrance to the first grade is practi- 
cally the same for boys and girls, 6.28 years for the former and 
6.27 years for the latter. 



SUMMARY. 71 

30. The maximum effect of retardation in increasing the 
average age is .70 of a year in the fourth grade for the boys and 
.50 of a year in the fifth grade for the girls, a difference of .20 
of a year. 

31. The maximum effect of elimination in decreasing the 
average age of the grade is .30 of a year for the boys and .40 
of a year for the girls, a difference of a tenth of a year, both being 
in the seventh grade. 

32. Of those who entered the first grade below normal age, 
24.5 per cent made normal progress, 39.6 per cent lost one year, 
and 36.0 per cent lost two years; and of the normal age group 
40.8 per cent made normal progress, 33.7 per cent lost one year, 
and only 21.6 per cent lost two years. 

33. By the time the eighth grade is reached, 25.9 per cent 
of the class have been admitted from other schools. 

34. Approximately 20 per cent of the losses sustained by 
grades five to eight are due to a change in residencii 

35. Approximately 31 per cent of those who leave the public 
schools go to work, 17 per cent leave the city, and 21 per cent enter 
the parochial schools. 

36. Twenty-four per cent of the boys who go to work and 
21 per cent of the girls do not get beyond the fourth grade, and 
43 per cent of the boys and 46.6 per cent of the girls do not get 
beyond the fifth grade. Exactly one-fourth of the girls leave in 
the fifth grade and 32 per cent of the boys leave in the sixth. 
Only 9.1 per cent of the boys and 15.7 per cent of the girls get 
to the eighth grade, an average of 12.4 per cent. 

37. Twenty-five per cent both of those who leave the city 
and of those who enter the parochial schools leave in the first 
two grades ; 27 per cent of the former and 40 per cent of the 
latter leave in grades three and four. 

38. Only 15 per cent of the boys who left to go to work and 
16 per cent of the girls made normal progress, 47.8 per cent of the 
boys and 46.3 per cent of the girls lost two years and over, 23.9 
per cent of the boys and 17 per cent of the girls lost three years 
and over. 

39. The attendance of the promoted pupils is 38.6 per cent 
better than the attendance of the non-promoted. 

40. Of the promoted group 74.4 per cent attended 170 days 
and over; 20.5 per cent from 140 to 170 days; and 5.1 per cent 
less than 140 days. 

41. Of the non-promoted group only 54.6 per cent attended 



T2 EXTENT AND CAUSES OF RETARDATION. 

lYO days and over, 27.6 per cent from 140 to 170 days; and 18 
per cent less than 140 days. 

42. ISTinety-four and nine-tenths per cent of the promoted 
group attended 70 per cent of the time and over, and only 81.2 
per cent of the non-promoted. 

43. Of the promoted group only 5.1 per cent attended less 
than 70 per cent of the time and 18.6 per cent of the non-promoted. 

44. At least 20 per cent of the non-promotions are due to 
irregular attendance or non-attendance. 

45. The promoted pupils of the first seven grades missed 9.2 
per cent of the time, and the non-promoted (including the eight 
elementary grades), 18.2 per cent. 

46. The attendance of the promoted group is practically the 
same for boys and girls, but of the non-promoted group the girls 
missed 2.6 per cent more days than the boys. 

47. On the average, orphanage is not a direct cause for irreg- 
ular attendance or non-attendance. 

48. On the basis of $1.54 a month per pupil, the total loss 
sustained through irregular attendance or non-attendance was $12,- 
238.81 in 1907-1908, an average loss of $1.42 for each promoted 
child and $2.81 for the non-promoted. 



